Bangla Literature dates back to at least the 7th century and may be divided into three main periods: ancient, medieval, and modern. The different periods may be dated as follows: ancient period from 650-1200, medieval period from 1200-1800, and the modern period from 1800 to the present. The medieval period may again be divided into three periods: early medieval-also known as the period of transition- from 1200-1350; high medieval from 1350-1700, including the pre-Chaitanya period from 1350-1500 and the Chaitanya period from 1500-1700; and late medieval from 1700-1800. The modern period begins in 1800 and can again be divided into six phases: the era of prose from 1800-1860, the era of development from 1860-1900, the phase of rabindranath tagore (1861-1941) from 1890-1930, the post-Rabindranath phase from 1930 to 1947, the post-partition phase from 1947 to 1970, and the Bangladesh phase from 1971 to the present.

Ancient period The conquest of Bengal by the Mauryas in the 3rd century BC led to the spread of Aryan languages in the Bengal delta. The bangla language, however, developed from prakrit, through apabhrangsha and abahattha and outside the direct influence of Aryan languages. The earliest extant specimens of ancient Bangla are the 47 spiritual hymns now known as charyapada composed by Buddhist monks. Because the language of these hymns is only partly understood, it is called sandhya or twilight language. The Charyapada hymns possess both linguistic and literary value. The Siddhacharya, or composers of the Charyapada hymns, include Luipa, Bhusukupa, kahnapa and Shavarpa.

Early medieval: Period of transition (1201-1350) The anecdotes, rhymes and sayings of dak and khana may be dated to this period. The Apabhramsa of the Charyapada became more Bangla in character. Among the specimens of this period is Ramai Pandit's narrative poem shunyapurana (13th-14th century). Another example of early Bangla is a collection of lyrical poems in Apabhramsa entitled Prakrtapaingala. A Bangla song has also been found in Halayudh Mishra's sanskrit book shekhashubhodaya (c 1203).

High medieval: Pre-Chaitanya period (1350-1500) During this period, Bangla literature developed in three main areas: vaisnava literature, Mangala literature and translation literature. This period also saw the beginning of Muslim Bangla literature in the form of romantic and narrative poems.

The greatest of Vaishnava writers was the poet Baru Chandidas (14th century) who rendered jaydev's Sanskrit lyrics about radha and krishna into Bangla. The names of several poets who went by the name of chandidas have been found in the Middle Ages: Adi Chandidas, Kavi Chandidas, Dvija Chandidas and Dina Chandidas. The confusion about whether there were one or several poets called Chandidas is known in Bangla literature as the 'Chandidas riddle'. Chandidas has been credited with over a thousand lyrics. The introduction to srikrishnakirtan edited by Basantaranjan Ray Vidvadvallabh and published in 1916 by vangiya sahitya parishad mentions the name of Baru Chandidas. He was perhaps the original Chandidas who composed verses in 1350.

The patronage provided by the Muslim rulers, particularly Sultan Alauddin Hussein Shah, his son Nasrat Shah and commander-in-chief, paragal khan, in promoting Bangla literature is specially noteworthy. The 45-year rule of the Hussein Shah dynasty (1493-1538) in Bengal not only led to political, social and cultural prosperity, but also nurtured bangla language and literature. It was during the rule of Hussein Shah that some Bengali poets began composing lyrics in brajabuli. It was also during his rule that Kanka wrote Vidyasundar Kahini in praise of satya pir (c 1502).

Padavali or lyrical literature Padavali and other medieval lyrics were based on the story of Radha and Krishna and were written by innumerable poets, Hindu and Muslim, including some women poets. Among the padavali poets were Chandidas, jnanadas, Lochandas, govindadas, Rayshekhar, Shashishekhar, Balaram Das, Narottam Das, Narahari Das and Radhamohan Thakur.

Translated literature Maladhar Basu composed Srikrsnavijay, a free translation of the Sanskrit Shrimadbhagavata. The poem is also known as Govindamangal or Govindavijay and is believed to be the earliest translation work in Bangla. Several poets translated the Sanskrit Bhagavata, Ramayana and Mahabharata into Bangla during this period. krittivas ojha (15th century) was the first to translate the Ramayana into Bangla. He was followed by several other poets. In the 17th century, chandravati, daughter of dwija bansidas, the composer of Manasamangal, wrote Ramayanagatha. The first Bangla version of the Mahabharata was possibly Kavindra Parameshwar's Mahabharata or Kavindra Mahabharata (1525). Sanjay and Shrikar Nandi also wrote versions of the Mahabharata. Popularly, the most important Bangla Mahabharata was, however, composed by kashiram das around 1602-10. It is probable, however, that other poets also contributed towards the final version that was printed at Serampore Press in 1801-3. Because of its refined language and feelings of devotion, this version became more popular than other Bangla versions.

Mangalkavya The oldest of the extant mangalkavyas is Manasamangal, by vijay gupta, composed perhaps in 1494-95. According to the bhanita, or signature piece, Vijay Gupta was a resident of the village of Fullasri in barisal. Vijay Gupta's contemporary, bipradas pipilai, also wrote a poem on manasa titled Manasavijay (c 1494). Another version of Manasamangal is Narayan Dev's Padmapurana. These narrative lyrics describe the greatness of the gods and goddesses, but also provide vivid pictures of a land oppressed on the one hand by kings and on the other by floods, famines, epidemics, snakes, and tigers. Another important genre of mangalkavya is Chandimangal. Its first composer, Manik Datta, perhaps belonged to the pre-Chaitanya era. He was followed by the poet Madhavacharya towards the end of the 16th century. Two other famous poets of Chandimangal were mukundaram chakravarti and Dvija Madhav.

Muslim Bangla literature The poems written by Muslims during the Middle Ages can be divided into 6 groups: narrative poems (based on Muslim and Indian stories), religious poems, poems on cultural links, dirges, poems on astrology and poems on musicology. The greatest contribution of the Muslims to Bangla literature during this period was, however, the introduction of narrative and romantic poems, many of them being free translations or adaptations of arabic or persian romances.

Shah Muhammad Sagir (c 1400) was one of the earliest of the Bengali Muslim poets. Though his romance yusuf-zulekha contains no signature piece identifying him, he is generally regarded as being from East Bengal as copies of his poems have been found in the Chittagong-Comilla-Tripura region. Other epic poets include Jainuddin, Muzammil, Sheikh Faizullah, Daulat Uzir Bahram Khan. Jainuddin became famous with Rasulbijay, his only epic. Muzammil became famous mainly for his three poetic works: Nitishastravarta, Sayatnama and Khanjancharita.

Donagazi's Saifulmuluk Badiuzzamal (mid-16th century) is written in simple language and reveals the influence of Prakrit. Sheikh Faizullah occupies an important place among the Muslim poets of the medieval period with Goraksavijay, Gazivijay, Satyapir (1575), Zainaber Chautisha and Ragnama. Goraksavijay, which is based on Kavindra's poem, is in two parts. Part one describes how Gorakhnath rescued his guru, Minanath, while part two describes the ascetic life of King Gopichandra. Zainaber Chautisa narrates the sad story of Karbala in the form of Zainab's lament. Daulat Uzir Bahram Khan's only extant work, laily-majnu, evidently composed between 1560 and 1575, is a thematic translation of the Persian poet Zami's Laily-Majnu.

Several Muslim poets were influenced by vaisnavism, among them Chand Kazi (15th century), and Afzal Ali (17th century). Chand Kazi was the Kazi of Nabadwip under Sultan Hussein Shah (1493-1519) when Vaishnavism spread to Nabadwip. Afzal Ali's Nasihatnama is composed in the Vaishnava style.

Other medieval Muslim poets include syed sultan (c 1550-1648, nabi bangsha, Shab-i-Miraj, Rasulbijay, Ofat-i-Rasul, Jaykum Rajar Ladai, Iblisnama, Jnanachautisha, Jnanapradip, marfati gan, padavali), Sheikh Paran (c 1550-1615, nurnama, Nasihatnama), Haji Muhammad (c 1550-1620, Nur Jamal, Suratnama), Nasrullah Khan (c 1560-1625, janganama, Musar Sawwal, Shariatnama, Hidayitul Islam), Muhammad Khan (c 1580-1650, Satya-Kali-Vivad-Sangbad, Hanifar Ladai, Maktul Husein), Syed Martuza (c 1590-1662, Yog-Kalandar, padavali), Sheikh Muttalib (c 1595-1660, Kifayitul-Musallin), Mir Muhammad Shafi (c 1559-1630, Nurnama, Nurkandil, Sayatnama), abdul hakim (c 1620-1690, Lalmati-Sayfulmulk, Nurnama). Poets who composed between 1600 and 1757 include nawajis khan, Qamar Ali, Mangal (Chand), Abdul Nabi, Muhammad Fasih, Fakir Garibullah, Muhammad Yakub, Sheikh Mansur, Muhammad Uzir Ali, Sheikh Sadi and Heyat Mamud. Syed Sultan's Nabibamsa, Muhammad Khan's Maktul Husein and sheikh chand's Rasulbijay are known as Islamic Puranas.

Chaitanya era (1500-1700) sri chaitanya not only introduced the Gaudiya school of Vaishavism in Bengal, but also inspired a powerful group of writers to write biographies about him, among them Govindadas Karmakar's Govindadaser Kadacha, Jayananda's chaitanyamangal (end of the 16th century), Brndabandas' Chaitanyabhagavat (1573), Lochandas' (1523-1589) Chaitanyamangal and krishnadasa kaviraja's chaitanya charitamrita (1615). Several other biographies were also written about Chaitanyadev's followers including Narahari Chakravarti's Bhaktiratnakar (biographies of Chaitanya followers) Nityananda Das' Premavilas (biographies of Shrinivas, Narottam and Shyamananda) and Ishan Nagar's Advaitaprakash (1568-69). Chaitanyacharitamrta is considered to be the best biography of Chaitanyadev. This scholarly book contains his life story, his philosophy and devotion, all expressed in simple language. Jayananda's Chaitanyamangal contains many interesting facts of the period, for example, how the Hindus were learning Persian and wearing Muslim outfits.

Bangla literature in Arakan Towards the end of the Middle Ages, there was considerable cultivation of Bangla literature in the independent and semi-independent states on the borders of Bengal. Arakan became a tributary state of Gaud in 1430. For the subsequent 200 years the rulers of Arakan patronised Bangla language and literature. Among those who wrote poetry in Bangla under the patronage of the Arakan court was daulat qazi (about 1600-1638) whose Satimayna O Lorchandrani was the first Bangla romance. Daulat Qazi was unable to complete the poem which was later completed by alaol (c 1607-1680). Apart from padmavati, believed to be his finest poem, Alaol also wrote Saifulmulk Badiuzzamal, a Bangla rendering of a Persian narrative about the romance of prince Saifulmulk and the fairy princess Badiuzzamal. Arakan's other poets include Maradan (about 1600-1645) who wrote Nasirnama, and quraishi magan thakur who wrote Chandravati, a fairy-tale narrative.

Late Medieval period (1700-1800) The close of the medieval period was in many ways a period of decline. The decline of the Mughal Empire, the inroads of the European trading powers and the establishment of the British halted the natural flow of literary creation. However, the tradition of Vaishnava literature, mangalkavya, and translation work continued. There was a great deal of influence of both the Hindu Puranas and Islamic thoughts. The main literary productions of the period include padavali and mangalkavya.

Padavali Padavali writers in the 18th century include Narahari Chakravarti, Natavar Das, Dinabandhu Das, Chandrashekhar-Shashishekhar and Jagadananda. Their poems were, however, more full of ornamentation than meaning.

Mangalkavya Versions of Chandimangal continued to be composed, an important version being that by Ramchandra Yati written 1766-67. Interest also grew in Dharmamangal, with several poets, including Ghanaram Chakravarti, Narasingha Basu, Manikram Ganguli, Ramkanta Ray and Sahadev Chakravarti, writing different versions. Mangalkavyas also started being composed about new deities, for example, Suryamangal, Gangamangal, Shitalamangal, Laksmimangal, Sasthimangal and Sarasvatimangal. Special mention may be made of Durgadas Mukherjee's Gabgabhaktitarabgini.

bharatchandra, perhaps the greatest poet of the 18th century, wrote Nagastak and Gangastak in Sanskrit and, in Bangla, satyanarayaner panchali, Rasamanjari as well as Annadamangal. Annadamangal contains eight episodes and three parts: Shivayan-Annadamangal, Vidyasundar-Kalikamangal and Mansingha-Annapurnamangal. The character of Annada links the different parts although the main story is how Bhavananda's fortunes were transformed through Annada's blessings. Bharatchandra had originally planned to write an epic on the model of Kavikankan's Shrishrichandimangal, but, bowing to the taste of the 18th century and the desire of Raja krishnachandra roy, he turned it into the story of Vidyasundar. As a result, Bharatchandra's poem is a mangalkavya only in form. Although the poet was himself inclined towards Vaishnavism, he presented the deities as fun-loving human beings. Annadamangal influenced later poets in many ways; the poets of Kalikamangal copied it extensively.

Ramprasad and others In the artificial atmosphere of an age of decline, ramprasad sen (1721-1781) was an exception because of his sincere devotionalism and simplicity of language. Although he was reputed for his Shaktapadavali, he also wrote Vidyasundarkahini and Krsnakirtan. In the songs of Ramprasad the fierce Kali turned into a kindly mother. Some other poets of this genre were Radhakanta Mishra (perhaps the first poet of Kolkata), Kavindra Chakravarti and Nidhiram Acharya of chittagong.

Folklore An important part of 18th century literature was oral literature, the main theme of which was love. Because this literature was unwritten it kept on changing, right up to the 19th century. In much folklore the main role is played by a woman. The most important folkore collections are maimansingha gitika by Dinesh Chandra Sen and Purbabanga-Gitika by Chandrakumar De.

Modern period (1800- ) The modern period of Bangla literature is usually dated from the foundation of fort william college in 1800. The distinguishing features of Bangla literature of this period were: (a) the rise and development of powerful prose literature; (b) the influence of Sanskrit scholars on prose during the first half of the 19th century; (c) the influence of western literature; (d) the diversification of subjects; (e) the rise of periodical literature; (f) the elevation of colloquial language to the status of a literary language; (g) the development of new poetic genres. The writers of this period were inspired by the ideal of creating a universal, eternal and independent literature. There was also at this time a growing awareness that literature greatly influenced national life and that it was the finest measure of national character.

The modern period may be divided into six phases. In the first phase (1800-1850), the era of prose, Christian missionaries and Sanskrit scholars ushered in modernism through their prose writing. In the second phase, the era of development (1850-1900), Bengali writers, influenced by the west, created novels and poems that have stood the test of time. The third phase, the era of Rabindranath Tagore (1890-1930), was dominated by the poet, and, although shorter, was prolific. The very short fourth phase, the post-Rabindranath Tagore phase (1930-1947), from the era of Rabindranath Tagore to the partition of India, is regarded as a separate phase outside the Tagore influence. The fifth phase, the post-partition phase (1947-1970), saw the political division of Bengal and the bifurcation of Bangla literature into the literature of West Bengal and the literature of East Bengal/East Pakistan. The six and latest phase is the Bangladesh phase.

Modern period: The era of prose (1800-1860) Bangla prose writing developed in the 18th century mainly for adminstrative and proselytising purposes. The first Bangla books were those by Christian missionaries. dom antonio's Brahmin-Roman-Catholic-Sangbad, for example, was the first Bangla book to be printed towards the end of the 17th century. The foreign rulers also felt the need to learn Bangla, leading to the compilation of dictionaries and the writing of books of grammar. The Portuguese missionary Manoel da Assumpcam's bilingual dictionary, Vocabolario em idioma Bengalla, e Portuguez dividido em duas partes, was printed in Roman script from Lisbon in 1743. nathaniel brassey halhed wrote the first Bangla grammar, A Grammar of Bengal Language (1776), to help the English learn Bangla. The book was printed in 1778 from Hughli Press, and bangla script was used in its examples and quotations. For administrative purposes law books in Bangla were needed. This is why a number of law books were translated and published at this time. Forster became well known particularly for his cornwallis code (1793) and Shabdakos (1799). Although these are not original works, they give an idea of the nature of Bangla prose in the 18th century.

william carey (1761-1834) came to Bengal for missionary work but became famous as the pioneer of Bangla prose. In 1800 he published Mathi Rachita Mangal Samachar, a Bangla translation of the bible, from serampore mission. He later joined Fort William College and devoted himself to writing textbooks. Fort William College had been established in Kolkata in May 1800 to prepare English civil servants for their administrative duties. One of their subjects was the local language. However, the absence of proper Bangla texts posed considerable difficulties. A team of Bangla scholars led by Carey accordingly began writing textbooks in Bangla. This is how a planned form of Bangla language developed. Other scholars who helped the development of Bangla prose were ramram basu, Golaknath Sharma, mrityunjay vidyalankar, tarini charan mitra, rajib lochon mukhopadhyay, Chandicharan Munshi and Haraprasad Roy.

Textbooks Although Fort William College helped develop Bangla prose through the preparation of Bangla textbooks, later textbooks were written at the initiative of calcutta school-book society (established 1817). Some of its main writers were ram comul sen (1783-1844), radhakanta deb (1783-1867), and Tarinicharan Mitra (1772-1837). Most of their books were didactic. Other textbooks were written by teachers of serampore college, including Felix Carey (1786-1822), John Clark Marshman, and John Mack. Some Bangla writers of the time such as krishna mohan banerji (1813-1885) also wrote textbooks.

While these textbooks were concerned with subject matter rather than with the literary quality of writing, they form a valuable addition to Bangla prose writing. By constructing a language that could communicate modern ideas to Bengali readers, they helped develop Bangla prose, often by acquiring words and terms from other languages.

Raja Rammohan Roy (1772/4-1833) also contributed to the further development of Bangla prose. Some of his well-known books are translations: Vedanta Grantha (1815), Vedantasar (1815), Kenopanisad (1816) and Ishopanisad (1816). His original books include Bhattacharyer Sahit Vichar (1817), Gosvamir Sahit Vichar (1817), Sahamaran Virodhi Pustika, Sahamaran Visay (1828), gaudiya vyakaran (1833) etc. The main themes of these books are religious and didactic.

Many of Rammohan's attempts at reform were opposed by people such as Mrityunjay Vidyalankar, Radhakanta Deb, Ramkamal Sen, Kashinath Tarkapanchanan, bhabanicharan bandyopadhyay (1787-1848), and primarily the Christian missionaries of Serampore. Rammohan's supporters included Ramchandra Vidyavagish, Prince dwarkanath tagore (1794-1846), Prasannakumar Thakur, Tarachand Chakravarti (1806-1857), Chandrashekhar Dev, Gourikanta Bhattacharya, Gouramohan Vidyalankar, and Rev. Krishna Mohan Banerji. The propaganda war between Rammohan's supporters and opponents generated writings, later nicknamed 'Dvairath Dvandva' or combat between two charioteers, which fed the periodical journals and the newspapers, at the time the most important medium of Bangla prose.

The development of Bangla periodicals and newspapers The appearance of Bangla periodicals and newspapers in the second decade of the 19th century helped create and develop Bangla prose. The missionaries of Serampore published the first Bangla journal, Masik Digdarshan (April 1818). Other well-known regular and irregular periodicals published between 1818 and 1831 include Samachardarpan (1818), edited by John Clark marshman; Sambad Kaumudi (1821), edited by Tarachand Dutta and Bhabanicharan Bandyopadhyay; Samachar Chandrika (1822), by Bhabanicharan Bandyopadhyay; and Bangadut (1829) by Neelmoni Halder. An important role was also played by the mouthpiece of the brahma samaj, tattvabodhini patrika, which appeared in 1843 and which was edited by akshay kumar datta for 12 years. Other who contributed to it were iswar chandra vidyasagar (1820-1891), debendranath tagore (1817-1905), rajnarayan basu (1826-1899), dwijendranath tagore (1840-1926). The journal significantly furthered the literary efforts of Bengalis.

The rise of the Bangla novel peary chand mitra (1814-1883) and kali prasanna singh (1840-1870) were the first Bangla novelists. Peary Chand Mitra was a fine essayist, writing on a variety of varied subjects. However, he also wrote the first Bangla novel, alaler gharer dulal (1858). Using the pen name of 'Tekchand Thakur', he used chalita bhasa or colloquial language to narrate his story of Bengal society. His language, the common people's language with its mixture of Arabic, Persian and Hindustani vocabulary, was fondly called 'alali prose'.

Kali Prasanna Singh brought Bangla even closer to people by using the colloquial language of Kolkata and its surrounding areas in his writings. The language used by him in his novel hutom pyanchar naksha (1862), depicting the social life of Kolkata, was more refined than that used by Peary Chand. His language, called 'hutomi', considerably influenced Bangla prose during the next century.

The development of sadhu bhasa The principal architect of 19th century Bangla prose was Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar. Writing textbooks and articles, Vidyasagar developed a form of sadhu bhasa or formal prose that influenced future writers.

Among other writers who contributed to the development of prose was bhudev mukhopadhyay (1827-94), who wrote on society, education, history, science, and religion. One of the prominent scholars of the time, rajendralal mitra (1822-1891), used to write mostly in English but also contributed in Bangla to the monthly journals Vividhartha Sanggraha (1851), Rahasyasandarva (1851) and Vividhartha Sanggraha Sandarva (1863). In 1852 rangalal banerjee (1827-1887) published the first Bangla book of literary criticism. Rajnarayan Basu wrote on a variety of subjects in Sekal Ar Ekal (1874), Hindu College Athaba Presidency College-er Brttanta (1876), Bangala Bhasa O Sahitya Bisayak Baktrta (1878) and Atmacharita. Ramgati Nyayaratna (1831-1894) wrote the first detailed history of Bangla literature (1872, 1873) in Bangala Bhasa O Bangala Sahitya Bisayak Prastab.

Modern Period: The era of development (1860-1900) (1860-1900) The first modern Bangla novelist was bankimchandra chattopadhyay whose fourteen novels include Durgeshnandini, Kapalkundala, Krishnakanter Will, Bisbrksa and Ananadamath. Drawing upon history as well as contemporary life, Bankimchandra wrote novels with well-developed plots and characters that continue to be eminently readable. He also edited a literary monthy, bangadarshan (1872).

Other significant writers of the time include Bankimchandra's elder brother sanjeeb chunder chattopadhyay (1834-1889) who also was well known for his novels as well as Palamau, an excellent travel story. Another writer of merit was romesh chundr dutt (1848-1909), who wrote historical novels. Rabindranath's elder sister swarna kumari devi (1855-1932) wrote novels as well as poems and plays. Her social novels reflect the moral conflicts of contemporary society. She also edited bharati. Trailokyanath Mukhopadhyay (1847-1919) wrote a wide range of entertaining stories for both young and old. He wrote four novels and four books of short stories. Indranath Bandyopadhyay (1849-1922) wrote satirical sketches and novels. Some other established prose writers of the time were Pratapchandra Ghosh (1845-1921), Shibnath Shastri, Chandrashekhor Mukhopadhyay (1849-1911), Haraprasad Shastri (1853-1931), Damodar Mukhopadhyay, Shrishchandra Majumdar and Nagendranath Gupta (1861-1940).

Essay writing This genre was initiated by Bhudev Mukhopadhyay and reached its zenith at the hands of Bankimchandra. It was enriched by Bhudev Mukhopadhyay's thoughtful essays on a variety of subjects. Some of his works in this genre include Bijnan Rahasya (1875), Vividha Samalochana (1876) and Krishnacharitra (1886). Other essayists include Bankim's elder brother Sanjeeb Chunder who wrote Jatra-Samalochana (1875) and Balyabibaha (1882) and Dwijendranath Tagore who wrote on linguistics. Other essayists include Troilokyanath Sanyal (1840-1916), Bandhab (1874), kaliprosanna ghosh (1843-1910), Chandranath Basu (1844-1910), Ramdas Sen (1845-1887) Shibnath Shastri, Purnachandra Basu, Chandrashekhor Mukhopadhyay (1849-1922) and Haraprasad Shastri.

Bengali Muslim writers For a considerable period, Bengali Muslim poets had made no significant contribution to literature. They accepted neither Company rule nor the modern ways of the British. While the 'Young Bengalis' were emulating western ways, the Muslims were agitating against the British.

Following a change in their political attitude, middle-class Bengali Muslim writers emerged in the 19th century. Prominent among them were mir mosharraf hossain (1847-1912), Moulvi Mohammad Naimuddin (1832-1907), Dad Ali (1852-1936), kaikobad (1857-1951), Sheikh Abdur Rahim, Reazuddin Ahmad Mashadi, Mozammel Huq, Munshi Muhammad Reazuddin Ahmad (1862-1933), Moulvi mearajuddin ahmad (1852-1929), Munshi Muhammad Zamiruddin (1870-1930), abdul hamid khan yusufzai (1864-1924) and Maulana Mohammad Moniruzzaman Islamabadi (1875-1950). Mir Mosharraf Hossain wrote nearly 30 books including novels, plays, satire, poetry, musical plays, and essays. His best known writing is, however, bisad-sindhu, based on the incidents at Karbala.

Mozammel Huq wrote both prose and poetry. His poetry was inspired by the idea of a Muslim renaissance. However, he excelled in writing prose, including biographies and novels. He also translated Persian works into Bangla, including the first part of Shahnama. The first Bangla biography of Prophet muhammad (Sm) was written by Sheikh Abdur Rahim. Pandit Reazuddin Ahmad Mashadi wrote Samaj Sangskarak, which was, however, banned by the government soon after publication for its revolutionary content.

The era of Michael Madhusudan Dutt michael madhusudan dutt (1824-1873) began writing in English but soon moved to writing in Bangla. Influenced by his English readings, he used blank verse and the sonnet form to write his poems. His epic, meghnadbadh kavya (1861), combines an eastern subject with western techniques and style. Sometime after writing Meghnadbadh, Madhusudan left for Europe where he started writing sonnets. These were published in 1866 as' Chaturddashpadi Kavitavali'. He is also credited with having written the first true tragedy in Bangla.

Madhusudan was followed by hemchandra banerjee (1838-1903) and nabinchandra sen (1847-1909), who were inspired by nationalism and hinduism. Hemchandra's epic Brttrasanghar (1875), based on the Mahabharata, and Nabinchandra's book of poems Palashir Yuddha (1875), reflect their nationalistic feelings. Kaikobad was a Muslim poet who wrote mahashmashan in the tradition of Hemchandra and Nabinchandra. The misery of the Muslims of the time made him sad, prompting him to write poems on their past glory. The 870-page Mahasmasan was written on the events of the third Panipat war.

Lyrical poems The new trend of lyric poetry was manifested in kavigan and Jatra. tappa (a light classical variety of amorous songs), especially the songs of nidhu gupta also known as Nidhubabu became popular during this period. These songs were composed and presented purely for entertainment and therefore were not intended to be of high literary value. These were however somewhat refined later by coposers such as gonjla gaen. Kavigan also became popular among the urban people. Some famous poets of this period include bhola moira, anthony firingee, and Thakur Singh.

Modern lyrical poems The setter of this trend, biharilal chakravarty (1835-1894), became famous for his poetic work Saradamangal (1879). Biharilal's language was simple and spontaneous. Among other poets of the time, surendranath majumder (1838-1878) became famous for his poem Mahila. Other poets included Dineshcharan Basu, Debendranath Sen, Akshay Kumar Baral (1860-1919), Rajanikanta Sen (1865-1910), Govindadas (1854-1918), Girindamohini Das (1857-1924), Kamini Roy (1864-1933), Mankumari Basu, Anandachandra Mitra, Govindachandra Roy, Barodacharan Mitra and dwijendralal roy.

Modern dramatic literature Madhusudan Dutt established modernism in Bangla plays as he did in Bangla poetry. He began writing Bangla plays after noticing the paucity of good plays in Bangla. Madhusudan's first play, Sharmistha (1859), was based on the Mahabharata story of Sharmistha-Devayani-Yayati. His second play, Padmavati (1860), was based on a Greek classical story. In this play he also used blank verse for the first time.

Madhusudan also wrote two farces, Ekei Ki Bale Sabhyata and Buda Saliker Ghare Roun (1860), in which he used colloquial language and dialect as well as English and Persian words. But Madhusudan's best play was Krishnakumari (1861), which has been described as the first successful tragedy in Bangla. In writing Krishnakumari, Madhusudan ignored eastern dramatic rules and used western ones.

Madhusudan was followed by dinabandhu mitra whose Nildarpan (1860) has considerable historical value as it depicts the merciless exploitation of Bengali farmers by English indigo traders. The play played a significant role in ending indigo cultivation. Two other playwrights who made sigificant contributions were Dwijendra Lal Roy and girish chandra ghosh (1844-1912).

The first Muslim playwright was Golam Husain whose play Hadjvalani was printed in 1864. It was not a complete play, but rather a string of scenes. Azimuddi's farce, Kadir Mathay Budor Biye (2nd edition 1868), was written at about the same time. Mir Mosharraf Hossain wrote several plays in Bangla, among them Basantakumari (1873), written on the style of Sanskrit plays, and Zamidar-Darpan (1873), depicting the oppression of farmers by the landlords.

Late Muslim writers In the 1860s the English rulers severely suppressed the faraizi, wahabi and other religious and political movements. Towards the end of the century, Munshi mohammad meherullah and his disciple, Munshi Muhammad Zamiruddin, launched a movement to make Bengali Muslims aware of their Muslim identity through literary efforts. This movement, known as the 'Sudhakar' movement, was led by Moulvi Mearajuddin Ahmad, Pandit Reazuddin Ahmad Mashadi, Munshi Sheikh Abdur Rahim and Munshi Muhammad Reazuddin Ahmad. They attempted to make Muslims conscious of their Islamic heritage and glorious past by creating literature in their mother tongue Bangla. They also translated some books into Bangla. This led to the creation of a new stream in Bangla literature. Their first publication was Islam Tattva. Thereafter, Sheikh Abdur Rahim and Munshi Muhammad Reazuddin Ahmed published a weekly journal sudhakar (1889). Though Muslim Bengalis had made an effort to create literature before this movement, there had previously been no concerted effort of this kind. In fact, it was the Sudhakar group that laid the foundation for a distinct stream of Muslim nationalistic literature in Bangla.

The dormant talent of Munshi Mohammad Meherullah (1861-1907) flowered in the wake of severe clashes with christianity. Of his nine books, Meherul Islam had a puthi-style nat, eulogising Prophet Muhammad (S). Its language was simple and easy but at the same time lucid and elegant. Munshi Muhammad Zamiruddin (1870-1930) converted to christianity and came to be known as Father John Zamiruddin. But when he was defeated in a religious debate, he reconverted to islam and as Munshi Zamiruddin engaged in propagating Islam. Basically he used his pen in the service of Islam and became quite famous. Sheikh Abdur Rahim (1859-1931) wrote about the Muslim heritage of Bengali Muslims and described the contribution of Islam to human civilisation. His first book was about the life and contribution of the Prophet Muhammad (S): Hazrat Muhammader Jibancharita O Dharmaniti (1887). He was associated with editing Sudhakar, Mihir, Hafez, Moslem Pratibha, Moslem Hitaisi etc. He wrote thoughtful articles in the mohammadi. Maulana Moniruzzaman Islamabadi was a political activist, social worker, journalist, litterateur and a good orator. He was more famous for his historical essays. His best literary work was Bharate Mussalman Sabhyata. He earned literary fame through his writings in Mihir and Sudhakar. He later edited and published soltan and Amir.

Some other Muslim writers of repute were Deen Muhammad Gangopadhyay (1853-1916), Sheikh Abdul Jabbar (1881-1918), Munshi Abdul Latif (1870-1936) and kazi akram hossain (1896-1963). Abdul Latif was a nationalist Congress leader before the partition of India, but nevertheless he became famous for his literary works in the service of Islam and the Muslims. Kazi Akram Hossain became famous for his book Islamer Itihas (1924) but he also made significant contributions in other fields of literature. mohammad yakub ali chowdhury (1888-1940) was a rare scholar in the Muslim society of the time. His Manab Mukut testified to his depth of knowledge as a philosopher.

Modern period: The Tagore phase (1890-1930) Rabindranath Tagore was an extraordinary man who made major contributions to all genres of Bangla literature. He wrote an immense range of rich and varied forms of poetry, plays, dance dramas, novels, short stories, essays and over two thousand songs. Although he was known as 'Vishvakavi' (world poet) and won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1913 for his book of poems Gitanjali, he was also a writer of superb prose, fictional and non-fictional. The volume and variety of his writings, his high ideals, his social commitment, rendered Rabindranath an institution by himself. He dominated Bangla literature for an entire generation and continued to do so long after his death.

The most popular novelist of this period was sharat chandra chattopadhyay (1876-1938). His novels depict, with a great deal of lucidity and sympathy, the daily life of the Bengalis, and, above all, the life of the Bengali woman. His novels continue to be popular and have been translated into almost all Indian languages. Many have been turned into cinemas and stage plays.

Other writers of the period include pramatha chowdhury (1868-1946), whose essays and linguistic style greatly influenced a group of writers. He established the position of colloquial language in literature and also introduced the format of French short stories in Bangla literature. probhat kumar mukhopadhyay (1873-1932) wrote a number of novels but was at his best at the short story, of which he wrote over a hundred, most of which end with a sudden twist. abanindranath tagore (1871-1951) was a writer of fine colloquial Bangla prose as evidenced in his autobiographical writings and in his description of aesthetics.

Some other well-known writers of this phase were Jagadishchandra Bose (1858-1937), Ramendrasundar Trivedi, Naresh Chandra Sengupta, Upendranath Gangopadhyay, Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay, Monilal Gangopadhyay, Kedarnath Bandyopadhyay, Khagendranath Mitra, Jagadishchandra Gupta, jaladhar sen, Sourindramohan Mukhopadhyay, nirupama devi, prabhavati devi, Sita Devi, Shanta Devi and Hemendrakumar Roy.

Bangla poetry in Rabindra era Most of Rabindranath's contemporary poets were overshadowed by him and remained under his influence for over half a century. A number of poets were, however, able to shake off his influence and establish themselves in their own rights. Among these poets were Satyendranath Dutta (1882-1922), Mohitlal Majumder (1888-1952), Kazi Nazrul Islam and Jasimuddin (1902-1976). Satyendranath demonstrated extraordinary ability in creating new poetic metres, and was accordingly called the 'magician of metres'. He was also a sensitive translator.

Mohitlal Majumder paved the way for modernism. Frankly sexual, his love poems celebrate physical love. In idiom and structure, however, his style was classical. Nazrul Islam entered Rabindranath's calm and tranquil sphere like a meteor, celebrating rebellion and common humanity in poetry that could be declamatory, fiery, angry, and lyrical at will. The poem 'Bidrohi', that marked his extrance into poetry, ensured his place in Bangla literature. But he was also a composer and song writer, writing ghazals and love songs, as well as hamd and nat as well as kirtan. Jasimuddin, called 'Palli Kavi' (rural poet), drew from the tradition of rural Bengal, writing about the joys and sorrows of rustic life in rhythms that were based on folk tunes.

Some other well-known poets of this era were Karunanidhan Bandyopadhyay, Chitta Ranjan Das, Atulprasad Sen, Kalidas Roy, Kumudranjan Mallik, Narendra Dev, Pramathanath Roy Chowdhury, Bijay Chandra Majumder, Mankumari Basu, Jatindramohan Bagchi, Jatindranath Sengupta, Sabitriprasanna Chattopadhyay, Radharani Devi and Umadevi.

Essay literature Like the other writers of this era, the essayists too were greatly influenced by Rabindranath. The first of the prominent essayists of this phase was Pramatha Chowdhury. Through his journal sabujpatra, he popularised colloquial Bangla prose, proving through his essays that colloquial language was fit to express both light and serious thoughts. His use of colloquial Bangla also convivced Rabindranath to do the same, resulting in Rabindranath's moving in his later writings from sadhu bhasa to chalita bhasa. Pramatha Chowdhury was also well known as a literary critic.

Ramendrasundar Trivedi was also a fine essayist and was primarily known for his essays on scientific subjects. However, he also wrote essays on philology and grammar, society and politics and philosophy. His philosophical essays reveal a depth of thought and originality despite the simplicity of their language. Balendranath Tagore (1870-1899) was an able literary critic. Abanindranath Tagore was a fine art critic as well as folklorist, writing in Bageshwari Shilpa Prabandhabali and Banglar Vrata about folk art and rituals. Some other well-known essayists of the era were Mohitlal Majumder, Dinesh Chandra Sen, Sureshchandra Samajpati, Panchkari Bandyopadhyay and shashanka mohan sen.

Post-Rabindra phase (1930-1947) (1930-1947) The anti-imperialist movement that began in Bengal following the First World War and the socialist revolution in Russia also affected Bangla literature. Though Rabindranath was still writing, around 1930 new writers emerged along with new interests. In 1923 Kallol, a literary journal, began publication in Kolkata where these new writers were published. Shanibarer Chithi also provided them indirect support. Two similar journals appeared around this time: Kalikalam in Kolkata in 1926 and Pragati in dhaka in 1927. The Kallol writers included Buddhadev Bose and Achintya Kumar Sengupta.

Fiction and short stories of the thirties The appearance of some able litterateurs at this time helped the development of Bangla fiction and short stories. These writers depicted the lives of working people, the problems of human existence, the politics of India, etc. rajshekhar basu (1880-1960) was the main architect of satirical short stories in Bangla.

Other famous writers included Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay, Tarashankar Bandyopadhyay (1898-1971), and Manik Bandyopadhyay (1908-1956). Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay's work is distinguished by descriptions of the domestic life of rural Bangladesh and its scenic beauty. He analyses human behaviour even as he describes nature's tranquil and charming scenes. His best work was pather panchali (1929). Tarashankar Bandyopadhyay was a powerful writer, writing about the lives of simple peasants, boatmen and minstrels of rural Bengal. Expansive and comprehensive, his novels Ganadevata (1942) and Panchagram (1944) bring rural life alive. His short stories also focus on the village.

The novelist and short story writer, manik bandyopadhyay, was profoundly influenced by Marxism and by Freudian psychoanalsyis. Putul Nacher Itikatha (1936) and Padmanadir Majhi (1936) reveal his Marxist leanings as they do his psycholgical approach. Premendra Mitra (1904-1988) was an adroit short story writer, using language skilfully to convey his themes and create characters. His stories encompass a variety of subjects ranging from struggle for living to politics and sociology.

Some other powerful novelists and short story writers of the time were Jagadish Gupta, bibhutibhushan bandyopadhyay, balaichand mukhopadhyay (1899-1979), pramathanath bishi (1901-1985), Manoj Basu (1901-1987), Gopal Haldar (1902- ), achinta kumar sengupta (1903-1976), Annadashankar Roy (1904- ), Prabodhkumar Sanyal (1905-1983), Buddhadev Bose, Subodh Ghosh (1909-1980), Gajendrakumar Mitra (1909- ), Bimal Mitra (1912- ), Narayan Gangopadhyay (1918-1970), Moti Nandi (1931- ), Shyamal Gangopadhyay (1933-2001), Sunil Gangopadhyay (1934- ) and Shirsendu Mukhopadhyay (1935- ).

Poetry of the thirties The social decay that engulfed Europe after the First World War also pervaded the minds of Bengali poets via English literature. Discarding Rabindranath's aesthetic and idealistic perceptions of beauty, love and pleasure in poetry, they espoused urban life. The pioneering role in introducing ultra-modernism in Bangla poetry was played by Achinta Kumar Sengupta, Buddhadev Bose, Premendra Mitra, jibanananda das (1899-1954), sudhindranath dutta (1901-1960), bishnu de (1909-1982) and Samar Sen (1916- ). Jibanananda Das was the most powerful poet of this phase. In poetic expressions he allowed himself to be driven by both the intellect and the emotions. He was essentially a poet of nature and drew superb images from the natural world around him.

The complexity of modern poetry is reflected in the works of Sudhindranath Dutta who used complex language and difficult phrases for the purpose. Among Marxist poets were Bishnu De and Samar Sen. Bishnu De's poems were distinctive in syntax, in the use of myths and new prosody. Samar Sen made the urban environment the basic theme of his poems; but, alongside his Marxist views, his poems also contained romantic thoughts and the charm of the quiet atmosphere of the Santal Pargana.

Buddhadev Bose ranked among the first group of poets who attempted to move away from the influence of Rabindranath. Bose was fully aware of the features of modern poetry and his love poems are about the physical desires of the body rather than about romantic love. Nevertheless, his late poems show that deep in his heart he was essentially a romantic poet.

The poems of Premendra Mitra are inspired by rebelliousness and reflect his sympathy for oppressed and deprived humanity. While there is a strain of egoism in his peoms, there is an underlying humanism that makes his poems appealing. Other poets of this era include Amiya Chakravarty (1901-1986), sukanta bhattacharya (1926-1947), Ajit Dutta, Arun Mitra, and Subhash Mukhopadhyay.

Dramatic literature of the thirties The dramatic literature of the time, unlike poetry, fiction and short stories, did not show much of modernism. The trend of Girish Chandra and Dwijendra Lal was still in vogue. Nevertheless, there were some changes because of stage modernisation, changing tastes, appearance of educated amateur artistes, and writing of new kinds of plays. Notable playwrights of this phase were Jogeshchandra Choudhury (1886-1941), sachindra nath sengupta (1892-1961), tulsi lahiri (1897-1959), manmatha roy (1899-1988) and Pramathanath Bishi.

Essay literature of the thirties In this phase, those who were noted for writing thematic essays included suniti kumar chatterji (1890-1977), sushil kumar de (1890-1968), Rajshekhar Basu, Niharranjan Roy (1903-1981) and Sukumar Sen; in literary criticism, prominent writers were Srikumar Bandyopadhyay (1892-1970), Shashibhusan Dasgupta (1911-1964) and Pramathanath Bishi; in other areas, the prominent writers were atul chandra gupta (1884-1961), Annadashankar Roy and Dhurjatiprasad Mukhopadhyay. Buddhadev Bose, syed muztaba ali (1904-1974), Humayun Kabir (1906-1969) and abu sayeed ayyub (1906-1982) were also exceptionally fine essayists.

Post-Partition era (1947-1971) The most important development in the intellectual history of Muslim Bengal was the establishment in Dhaka of the muslim sahitya samaj in the thirties. The group's principal source of inspiration was abul hussain (1896-1938) and its main writer was kazi abdul wadud (1894-1970). The Samaj's mouthpiece was shikha which proclaimed the idea of free thought.

Among those who paved the way for a new stream of literature in the then East Pakistan and later in independent Bangladesh, mohammad najibar rahman (1860-1923) deserves particular mention. His novel Anwara (1912), which depicts the life of an ideal Muslim family, was read very widely in Muslim homes. ekramuddin ahmad (1872-1940) was another powerful Muslim writer of the period. Although he was a critic, novelist and short story writer, he was instrumental in introducing Rabindranath to Muslim society through his book Rabindrapratibha (1926).roquiah sakhawat hossain(1880-1932) demonstrated considerable skill in writing fiction, short stories, essays and poems, many of them inspired by her ideals of social and educational reform. Her Abarodhbasini (1928) depicted the plight of women in a purdah society. In Abdullah (1932) kazi imdadul huq (1882-1926) revealed the effects of western education on traditonal Muslim society. shahadat hossain (1893-1953) was a devoted and unassuming litterateur and poet, mainly remembered for Rupchhanda (1943). The primary objective of golam mostafa (1897-1964) was to introduce Islamic ideas in Bangla literature. Apart from writing poetry, he also wrote Vishwanabi (1942), a fine biography of the prophet of Islam.

Some other well-known writers of this phase include Mohammad Akram Khan, Dr muhammad shahidullah (1885-1969), Dr Muhammad Lutfar Rahman (1889-1936), S Wazed Ali (1890-1951), Ibrahim Khan (1894-1978), Nurunessa Khatun Vidyavinodini (1894-1975), Sheikh Muhammad Idris Ali (1895-1945), Akbaruddin (1895-1979), Mohammad Barkatullah (1898-1974), Abul Kalam Shamsuddin (1897-1978), Qazi Motahar Hossain, Abul Mansur Ahmed (1898-1979), Benajir Ahmed (1903-1983), abul fazal (1903-1983), Motaher Hossain Chowdhury (1903-1956), Muhammad Mansuruddin (1904-1987), Abdul Quadir (1906-1984), Bande Ali Miah (1906-1979), Mahmuda Khatun Siddiqua (1906-1977), Habibullah Bahar Choudhury (1906-1966), Mahbub-ul Alam (1906-1982), Dr Muhammad Enamul Huq, Sufi Motahar Hosen (1907-1975), Begum Sufia Kamal (1911-1999) and Raushan Yazdani (1917-1967).

India's independence movement and the movement for Pakistan influenced the Bangla-speaking people in two different ways. Despite their allegiance to their common heritage and customs, the poets and litterateurs of this phase, both old and new, were inspired to work for the changed society and life of the new states of India and Pakistan. The political partition of Bengal was thus accompanied by the partition of its literature as well.

Bangladesh era The literature of Bangladesh may be divided into three phases: first phase 1947-1957, second phase 1958-1970 and third phase from 1971 onward.

First phase (1947-1957) This phase extended from pre-partition days to the pre-Ayub period. East Bengal faced a host of problems, such as an influx of refugees, economic distress and communal disturbances, as well as the Pakistani regime's hostile attitude to East Bengal and Bangla. Soon after the creation of Pakistan, the people of the eastern region realised the absurdity of a state based on religion. The decision to make urdu the sole state language of the country caused Bengalis to protest, culminating in the language movement of 1952. This awareness of their linguistic rights laid the foundation for the first phase of Bangla literature.

Fiction The fiction produced in Bangladesh was in fact a continuation of the fiction produced by the Muslim writers of undivided Bengal. Prominent among them were Muhammad Najibur Rahman, Korban Ali, Sheikh Idris Ali, Kazi Imdadul Huq, Kazi Abdul Wadud, Akbaruddin (1895-1978), Abul Fazal and Humayun Kabir. They founded the base for fiction in Bangladesh by assimilating the thought process of the Bengali Muslim society during the first two decades of the 20th century.

Most of the novels of the first phase were written in the backdrop of rural Bangladesh, among them lalsalu (1948) by syed waliullah (1922-1971), Char-Bhanga Char (1951) by Kazi Afsaruddin (1921-1975), Kashbaner Kanya (1954) and Alamnagarer Upakatha (1954) by Shamsuddin Abul Kalam (1926-1997), Chandradviper Upakhyan (1952) by Abdul Gaffar Choudhury (b 1934), Surya-Dighal Badi (1955) by Abu Ishaque (b 1926), and sarder jayenuddin's Adiganta. Some writers chose life of the middle class and its crisis as their theme. Among this class of novels Abul Fazal's Jiban Pather Yatri (1948) and Ranga Prabhat (1957) are worth mentioning.

Short stories Many of the Muslim writers of pre-partition days concentrated on producing novels and very few wrote short stories. But prominent among those who were active in the genre after 1947 include Abul Fazal, Abu Rushd, Syed Waliullah, Abul Mansur Ahmed, Shamsuddin Abul Kalam and shawkat osman (1917-1998). The new genre of short stories grew around the Muslim middle class that sprang up following partition; most stories used the social life of this class as their theme. Thus the short stories of Bangladesh reflected social reality and how the onslaught of urban life was eroding the quietude of rural life. Some books of short stories of this phase were Shawkat Osman's Pijranpol (1950), Junu Apa O Anyanya Galpa (1952) and Sabek Kahini (1953), Shamsuddin Abul Kalam's Anek Diner Asha (1952), Path Jana Nei (1953) and Dheu (1953), shahed ali's Jibrailer Dana (1953), and Alauddin Al-Azad's Jege Achhi, Dhan Kanya (1951) and Mrganabhi (1955).

Poetry The poets of East Bengal had been attempting since pre-partition days to create poetry of their own separate from the Kolkata-centred stream. After partition, the poets felt even more encouraged to write romantic poems on the themes of early Islamic history as well as on Pakistani nationalism. Those who belonged to this trend included farrukh ahmad (1918-1974), ahsan habib (1918-1983), Abul Husain (b 1921), Golam Quddus and Syed Ali Ahsan (b 1922).

Farrukh Ahmad was the most prominent poet of this trend. He created a world of poetry by using religious sentiments. His Sat Sagarer Majhi (1944) and Sirajam Munira (1952) are two books of poems worth mentioning. Two other equally important books on similar themes are Golam Mostafa's Bani Adam (1958) and Talim Husain's Dishari (1956). Other well-known poets of the time were Syed Ali Ahsan, Mufakkharul Islam, Sadruddin and Sufi Zulfiqar Haider.

However, there were other poets who tried to write poetry on secular and humanistic themes. Among these poets were Ashraf Siddiqui, with Biskanya (1955), Sat Bhai Champa (1955) and Uttar Akasher Tara (1958), Mazharul Islam with Matir Fasal (1955), Matiul Islam with Saptakanya (1957) and Begum Sufia Kamal with Man O Jiban (1957). This humanistic trend is also reflected in Natun Kavita (1950), edited by Ashraf Siddiqui and Abdur Rashid Khan. Among poets who contributed to this edition were Shamsur Rahman, hasan hafizur rahman, Alauddin Al-Azad and Borhanuddin Khan Jahangir.

Another poetic trend was inspired by the themes of instability in modern society, fatigue, rebellion and pangs of deprivation. The poets of this stream include Ahsan Habib and Abul Husain. Ahsan Habib's Ratrishes (1944) contained poems typical of his timidity and modesty. Abul Husain's Naba Basanta (1942), though published before partition, belongs to this trend.

The influence of 21 February The events of 21 February 1952 had a far-reaching effect on poetry as they did on the national life of this country. In 1953 Hasan Hafizur Rahman published an anthology of poems under the title of Ekushey February. Along with Natun Kavita, this anthology played a significant role in shaping the secular and humanistic character of Bangla poetry.

Plays Unlike other branches of literature in this phase, plays did not flourish to any significant extent. Religious and social taboos about plays as well as various limitations in staging them thwarted the development of drama. Most plays of the time were based on historical stories, completely detached from the realities of contemporary life. Of these plays, Akbaruddin's Nadir Shah (1953) is worth mentioning. Poet Jasimuddin used folklore to create Padmapar, Madhumala and Beder Meye. Outside these two trends, nurul momen created Nemesis (1948) depicting a superb picture of the contemporary life. In terms of theme and structure, Nemesis was regarded as the first successful play of Bangladesh. Razia Khan's play Sangbarta reflects political consciousness. Askar Ibne Shaikh is particularly remembered for writing social plays. He wrote quite a few plays based on the realities of rural life including Padaksep, Bidrohi Padma, Duranta Dheu, Birodh, Agnigiri, Anubartan and Pratiksa, all written between 1951 and 1959. Of particular interest is the thematic variety of these plays, which include historical plays as well as plays of political protest, plays based on folk tales and those containing poetry and satire.

It was munier chowdhury (1925-1971) who almost single-handedly raised the status of Bangla plays to an international level. A political prisoner in Dhaka central jail, he wrote the exceptional play Kabar (1953) based on the language movement of 1952. In fact, Kabar proved to be a turning point in Bangla plays. When the play was published, Manus and Nastachhele were added to the volume. Through these three plays, the writer spoke of eschewing communalism and of embracing greater humanism.

Essays Most of the post-partition essays were on subjects of literature and culture. Of the writers of this trend many were already well known before partition, such as Muhammad Shahidullah and muhammad abdul hai. Some books had been published in 1928 from Paris. These writers continued to carry out valuable research on Bangla language, literature and culture. Shahidullah's Bangla Sahityer Katha (volume 1, 1953, volume 2, 1965) and Abdul Hai's Sahitya O Sangskrti (1954) deserve special mention in the essay literature of this phase.

Second phase (1958-1970) The literary and cultural activities in Pakistan and especially in East Pakistan were thwarted following the promulgation of martial law by the army chief Ayub Khan in 1958. Restrictions on open politics, establishment of dictatorship in the garb of democracy and similar other measures aroused the Bengalis against the regime. The people's uprising in 1968, the students' movement in 1969 to realise their 11-point demand, the victory of the Bengalis in the general elections of 1970 but the refusal of the Pakistani junta to transfer power to them, the liberation war of 1971, the victory won by the Bengalis and the establishment of the sovereign state of Bangladesh all there deeply affected the social life of the people and were amply reflected in the Bangla literature of the 1958-1970 period.

Fiction Fiction in the second phase, as in the first phase, was written mainly on rural life. The harsh realities of rural life in Bangladesh were the theme of Hazar Bachhar Dhare (1964) by zahir raihan (1933-1972). The complexities of Hindu-Muslim relations in rural life were used by satyen sen (1907-1981) as the theme of his Padachihna (1968). shahidullah kaiser (1925-1971) in his Sareng Bau (1962) depicts a realistic picture of how the onslaught and complexity of urban life were destroying the peace of the rural life of south Bengal. Alauddin Al-Azad's Karnafuli portrayed the life of class struggle on the banks of the river karnafuli. ahmed sofa's Surya Tumi Sathi (1968) showed the continuing struggle for existence of rural people. However, Syed Waliullah's Chander Amabasya (1964), though ostensibly about rural life, is actually about social life under the Ayub Khan regime.

The shadow cast by Ayub's military rule on the life and thoughts of the Bengalis led creative writers to take to myths and symbolism to put forward their message. The crises that the Bengali middle class passed through during the Ayub rule were symbolically presented by Shawkat Osman in his novels Krtadaser Hasi (1963), Raja Upakhyan (1970) and Samagam. Similarly, Satyen Sen in his Abhishapta Nagari (1967) and Paper Sant