Bangla Literature dates back to at least the 7th century and may be
divided into three main periods: ancient, medieval, and modern. The different
periods may be dated as follows: ancient period from 650-1200, medieval period
from 1200-1800, and the modern period from 1800 to the present. The medieval
period may again be divided into three periods: early medieval-also known as the
period of transition- from 1200-1350; high medieval from 1350-1700, including
the pre-Chaitanya period from 1350-1500 and the Chaitanya period from 1500-1700;
and late medieval from 1700-1800. The modern period begins in 1800 and can again
be divided into six phases: the era of prose from 1800-1860, the era of
development from 1860-1900, the phase of
rabindranath tagore (1861-1941) from 1890-1930, the post-Rabindranath phase
from 1930 to 1947, the post-partition phase from 1947 to 1970, and the
Bangladesh phase from 1971 to the present.
Ancient period The conquest of Bengal by the Mauryas in the 3rd
century BC led to the spread of Aryan languages in the Bengal delta. The
bangla language, however, developed from
prakrit, through
apabhrangsha and
abahattha and outside the direct influence of Aryan languages. The earliest
extant specimens of ancient Bangla are the 47 spiritual hymns now known as
charyapada composed by Buddhist monks. Because the language of these
hymns is only partly understood, it is called
sandhya or twilight language. The Charyapada hymns possess both
linguistic and literary value. The Siddhacharya, or composers of the
Charyapada hymns, include Luipa, Bhusukupa,
kahnapa and Shavarpa.
Early medieval: Period of transition
(1201-1350) The anecdotes, rhymes and sayings of
dak and
khana may be dated to this period. The Apabhramsa of the Charyapada
became more Bangla in character. Among the specimens of this period is Ramai
Pandit's narrative poem
shunyapurana (13th-14th century). Another example of early Bangla is a
collection of lyrical poems in Apabhramsa entitled Prakrtapaingala. A
Bangla song has also been found in Halayudh Mishra's
sanskrit book
shekhashubhodaya (c 1203).
High medieval: Pre-Chaitanya period (1350-1500) During this
period, Bangla literature developed in three main areas:
vaisnava literature, Mangala literature and translation literature. This
period also saw the beginning of Muslim Bangla literature in the form of
romantic and narrative poems.
The greatest of Vaishnava writers was the poet Baru Chandidas (14th century) who
rendered
jaydev's Sanskrit lyrics about
radha and
krishna into Bangla. The names of several poets who went by the name of
chandidas have been found in the Middle Ages: Adi Chandidas, Kavi Chandidas,
Dvija Chandidas and Dina Chandidas. The confusion about whether there were one
or several poets called Chandidas is known in Bangla literature as the 'Chandidas
riddle'. Chandidas has been credited with over a thousand lyrics. The
introduction to
srikrishnakirtan edited by Basantaranjan Ray Vidvadvallabh and published
in 1916 by
vangiya sahitya parishad mentions the name of Baru Chandidas. He was perhaps
the original Chandidas who composed verses in 1350.
The patronage provided by the Muslim rulers, particularly Sultan Alauddin
Hussein Shah, his son Nasrat Shah and commander-in-chief,
paragal khan, in promoting Bangla literature is specially noteworthy. The
45-year rule of the Hussein Shah dynasty (1493-1538) in Bengal not only led to
political, social and cultural prosperity, but also nurtured
bangla language and literature. It was during the rule of Hussein Shah that
some Bengali poets began composing lyrics in
brajabuli. It was also during his rule that Kanka wrote Vidyasundar
Kahini in praise of
satya pir (c 1502).
Padavali or lyrical literature Padavali and other medieval lyrics were
based on the story of Radha and Krishna and were written by innumerable poets,
Hindu and Muslim, including some women poets. Among the padavali poets were
Chandidas,
jnanadas, Lochandas,
govindadas, Rayshekhar, Shashishekhar, Balaram Das, Narottam Das, Narahari
Das and Radhamohan Thakur.
Translated literature Maladhar Basu composed Srikrsnavijay,
a free translation of the Sanskrit Shrimadbhagavata. The poem is also
known as Govindamangal or Govindavijay and is believed to be the
earliest translation work in Bangla. Several poets translated the Sanskrit
Bhagavata, Ramayana and Mahabharata into Bangla during this
period.
krittivas ojha (15th century) was the first to translate the Ramayana
into Bangla. He was followed by several other poets. In the 17th century,
chandravati, daughter of
dwija bansidas, the composer of Manasamangal, wrote
Ramayanagatha. The first Bangla version of the Mahabharata was
possibly Kavindra Parameshwar's Mahabharata or Kavindra Mahabharata
(1525). Sanjay and Shrikar Nandi also wrote versions of the Mahabharata.
Popularly, the most important Bangla Mahabharata was, however, composed
by
kashiram das around 1602-10. It is probable, however, that other poets also
contributed towards the final version that was printed at Serampore Press in
1801-3. Because of its refined language and feelings of devotion, this version
became more popular than other Bangla versions.
Mangalkavya The oldest of the extant mangalkavyas is
Manasamangal, by
vijay gupta, composed perhaps in 1494-95. According to the bhanita,
or signature piece, Vijay Gupta was a resident of the village of Fullasri in
barisal. Vijay Gupta's contemporary,
bipradas pipilai, also wrote a poem on
manasa titled Manasavijay (c 1494). Another version of
Manasamangal is Narayan Dev's Padmapurana. These narrative lyrics
describe the greatness of the gods and goddesses, but also provide vivid
pictures of a land oppressed on the one hand by kings and on the other by
floods, famines, epidemics, snakes, and tigers. Another important genre of
mangalkavya is Chandimangal. Its first composer, Manik Datta, perhaps
belonged to the pre-Chaitanya era. He was followed by the poet Madhavacharya
towards the end of the 16th century. Two other famous poets of Chandimangal
were
mukundaram chakravarti and Dvija Madhav.
Muslim Bangla literature The poems written by Muslims during the Middle
Ages can be divided into 6 groups: narrative poems (based on Muslim and Indian
stories), religious poems, poems on cultural links, dirges, poems on astrology
and poems on musicology. The greatest contribution of the Muslims to Bangla
literature during this period was, however, the introduction of narrative and
romantic poems, many of them being free translations or adaptations of
arabic or
persian romances.
Shah Muhammad Sagir (c 1400) was one of the earliest of the Bengali Muslim
poets. Though his romance
yusuf-zulekha contains no signature piece identifying him, he is
generally regarded as being from East Bengal as copies of his poems have been
found in the Chittagong-Comilla-Tripura region. Other epic poets include
Jainuddin, Muzammil, Sheikh Faizullah, Daulat Uzir Bahram Khan. Jainuddin became
famous with Rasulbijay, his only epic. Muzammil became famous mainly for
his three poetic works: Nitishastravarta, Sayatnama and
Khanjancharita.
Donagazi's Saifulmuluk Badiuzzamal (mid-16th century) is written
in simple language and reveals the influence of Prakrit. Sheikh Faizullah
occupies an important place among the Muslim poets of the medieval period with
Goraksavijay, Gazivijay, Satyapir (1575), Zainaber
Chautisha and Ragnama. Goraksavijay, which is based on Kavindra's
poem, is in two parts. Part one describes how Gorakhnath rescued his guru,
Minanath, while part two describes the ascetic life of King Gopichandra.
Zainaber Chautisa narrates the sad story of Karbala in the form of Zainab's
lament. Daulat Uzir Bahram Khan's only extant work,
laily-majnu, evidently composed between 1560 and 1575, is a thematic
translation of the Persian poet Zami's Laily-Majnu.
Several Muslim poets were influenced by
vaisnavism, among them Chand Kazi (15th century), and Afzal Ali (17th
century). Chand Kazi was the Kazi of Nabadwip under Sultan Hussein Shah
(1493-1519) when Vaishnavism spread to Nabadwip. Afzal Ali's Nasihatnama
is composed in the Vaishnava style.
Other medieval Muslim poets include
syed sultan (c 1550-1648,
nabi bangsha, Shab-i-Miraj, Rasulbijay, Ofat-i-Rasul,
Jaykum Rajar Ladai, Iblisnama, Jnanachautisha,
Jnanapradip, marfati gan, padavali), Sheikh Paran (c
1550-1615,
nurnama, Nasihatnama), Haji Muhammad (c 1550-1620, Nur Jamal,
Suratnama), Nasrullah Khan (c 1560-1625,
janganama, Musar Sawwal, Shariatnama, Hidayitul
Islam), Muhammad Khan (c 1580-1650, Satya-Kali-Vivad-Sangbad,
Hanifar Ladai, Maktul Husein), Syed Martuza (c
1590-1662, Yog-Kalandar, padavali), Sheikh Muttalib (c 1595-1660,
Kifayitul-Musallin), Mir Muhammad Shafi (c 1559-1630, Nurnama,
Nurkandil, Sayatnama),
abdul hakim (c 1620-1690, Lalmati-Sayfulmulk, Nurnama). Poets
who composed between 1600 and 1757 include
nawajis khan, Qamar Ali, Mangal (Chand), Abdul Nabi, Muhammad Fasih, Fakir
Garibullah, Muhammad Yakub, Sheikh Mansur, Muhammad Uzir Ali, Sheikh Sadi and
Heyat Mamud. Syed Sultan's Nabibamsa, Muhammad Khan's Maktul
Husein and
sheikh chand's Rasulbijay are known as Islamic Puranas.
Chaitanya era (1500-1700)
sri chaitanya not only introduced the Gaudiya school of Vaishavism in
Bengal, but also inspired a powerful group of writers to write biographies about
him, among them Govindadas Karmakar's Govindadaser Kadacha,
Jayananda's
chaitanyamangal (end of the 16th century), Brndabandas'
Chaitanyabhagavat (1573), Lochandas' (1523-1589) Chaitanyamangal and
krishnadasa kaviraja's
chaitanya charitamrita (1615). Several other biographies were also
written about Chaitanyadev's followers including Narahari Chakravarti's
Bhaktiratnakar (biographies of Chaitanya followers) Nityananda Das'
Premavilas (biographies of Shrinivas, Narottam and Shyamananda) and Ishan
Nagar's Advaitaprakash (1568-69). Chaitanyacharitamrta is
considered to be the best biography of Chaitanyadev. This scholarly book
contains his life story, his philosophy and devotion, all expressed in simple
language. Jayananda's Chaitanyamangal contains many interesting facts of
the period, for example, how the Hindus were learning Persian and wearing Muslim
outfits.
Bangla literature in Arakan Towards the end of the Middle Ages, there was
considerable cultivation of Bangla literature in the independent and
semi-independent states on the borders of Bengal. Arakan became a tributary
state of Gaud in 1430. For the subsequent 200 years the rulers of Arakan
patronised Bangla language and literature. Among those who wrote
poetry in Bangla under the patronage of the Arakan court was
daulat qazi (about 1600-1638) whose Satimayna O Lorchandrani
was the first Bangla romance. Daulat Qazi was unable to complete the poem which
was later completed by
alaol (c 1607-1680). Apart from
padmavati, believed to be his finest poem, Alaol also wrote
Saifulmulk Badiuzzamal, a Bangla rendering of a Persian narrative
about the romance of prince Saifulmulk and the fairy princess Badiuzzamal.
Arakan's other poets include Maradan (about 1600-1645) who wrote Nasirnama,
and
quraishi magan thakur who wrote Chandravati, a fairy-tale narrative.
Late Medieval period (1700-1800) The close of the medieval period
was in many ways a period of decline. The decline of the Mughal Empire, the
inroads of the European trading powers and the establishment of the British
halted the natural flow of literary creation. However, the tradition of
Vaishnava literature, mangalkavya, and translation work continued. There was a
great deal of influence of both the Hindu Puranas and Islamic thoughts. The main
literary productions of the period include padavali and mangalkavya.
Padavali Padavali writers in the 18th century include Narahari
Chakravarti, Natavar Das, Dinabandhu Das, Chandrashekhar-Shashishekhar and
Jagadananda. Their poems were, however, more full of ornamentation than meaning.
Mangalkavya Versions of Chandimangal continued to be composed, an
important version being that by Ramchandra Yati written 1766-67. Interest also
grew in Dharmamangal, with several poets, including Ghanaram Chakravarti,
Narasingha Basu, Manikram Ganguli, Ramkanta Ray and Sahadev Chakravarti, writing
different versions. Mangalkavyas also started being composed about new deities,
for example, Suryamangal, Gangamangal, Shitalamangal,
Laksmimangal, Sasthimangal and Sarasvatimangal. Special
mention may be made of Durgadas Mukherjee's Gabgabhaktitarabgini.
bharatchandra, perhaps the greatest poet of the 18th century, wrote
Nagastak and Gangastak in Sanskrit and, in Bangla,
satyanarayaner panchali, Rasamanjari as well as Annadamangal.
Annadamangal contains eight episodes and three parts:
Shivayan-Annadamangal, Vidyasundar-Kalikamangal and Mansingha-Annapurnamangal.
The character of Annada links the different parts although the main story is how
Bhavananda's fortunes were transformed through Annada's blessings. Bharatchandra
had originally planned to write an epic on the model of Kavikankan's
Shrishrichandimangal, but, bowing to the taste of the 18th century and the
desire of Raja
krishnachandra roy, he turned it into the story of Vidyasundar. As a result,
Bharatchandra's poem is a mangalkavya only in form. Although the poet was
himself inclined towards Vaishnavism, he presented the deities as fun-loving
human beings. Annadamangal influenced later poets in many ways; the poets
of Kalikamangal copied it extensively.
Ramprasad and others In the artificial atmosphere of an age of decline,
ramprasad sen (1721-1781) was an exception because of his sincere
devotionalism and simplicity of language. Although he was reputed for his
Shaktapadavali, he also wrote Vidyasundarkahini and Krsnakirtan.
In the songs of Ramprasad the fierce Kali turned into a kindly mother. Some
other poets of this genre were Radhakanta Mishra (perhaps the first poet of
Kolkata), Kavindra Chakravarti and Nidhiram Acharya of
chittagong.
Folklore An important part of 18th century literature was oral
literature, the main theme of which was love. Because this literature was
unwritten it kept on changing, right up to the 19th century. In much folklore
the main role is played by a woman. The most important folkore collections are
maimansingha gitika by Dinesh Chandra Sen and Purbabanga-Gitika
by Chandrakumar De.
Modern period (1800- ) The modern period of Bangla literature is
usually dated from the foundation of
fort william college in 1800. The distinguishing features of Bangla
literature of this period were: (a) the rise and development of powerful prose
literature; (b) the influence of Sanskrit scholars on prose during the first
half of the 19th century; (c) the influence of western literature; (d) the
diversification of subjects; (e) the rise of periodical literature; (f) the
elevation of colloquial language to the status of a literary language; (g) the
development of new poetic genres. The writers of this period were inspired by
the ideal of creating a universal, eternal and independent literature. There was
also at this time a growing awareness that literature greatly influenced
national life and that it was the finest measure of national character.
The modern period may be divided into six phases. In the first phase
(1800-1850), the era of prose, Christian missionaries and Sanskrit scholars
ushered in modernism through their prose writing. In the second phase, the era
of development (1850-1900), Bengali writers, influenced by the west, created
novels and poems that have stood the test of time. The third phase, the era of
Rabindranath Tagore (1890-1930), was dominated by the poet, and, although
shorter, was prolific. The very short fourth phase, the post-Rabindranath Tagore
phase (1930-1947), from the era of Rabindranath Tagore to the partition of
India, is regarded as a separate phase outside the Tagore influence. The fifth
phase, the post-partition phase (1947-1970), saw the political division of
Bengal and the bifurcation of Bangla literature into the literature of West
Bengal and the literature of East Bengal/East Pakistan. The six and latest phase
is the Bangladesh phase.
Modern period: The era of prose (1800-1860) Bangla prose
writing developed in the 18th century mainly for adminstrative and proselytising
purposes. The first Bangla books were those by Christian missionaries.
dom antonio's Brahmin-Roman-Catholic-Sangbad, for example, was the
first Bangla book to be printed towards the end of the 17th century. The foreign
rulers also felt the need to learn Bangla, leading to the compilation of
dictionaries and the writing of books of grammar. The Portuguese missionary
Manoel da Assumpcam's bilingual dictionary, Vocabolario em idioma Bengalla, e
Portuguez dividido em duas partes, was printed in Roman script
from Lisbon in 1743.
nathaniel brassey halhed wrote the first Bangla
grammar, A Grammar of Bengal Language (1776), to help the English
learn Bangla. The book was printed in 1778 from Hughli Press, and
bangla script was used in its examples and quotations. For administrative
purposes law books in Bangla were needed. This is why a number of law books were
translated and published at this time. Forster became well known particularly
for his
cornwallis code (1793) and Shabdakos (1799). Although these are not
original works, they give an idea of the nature of Bangla prose in the 18th
century.
william carey (1761-1834) came to Bengal for missionary work but became
famous as the pioneer of Bangla prose. In 1800 he published Mathi Rachita
Mangal Samachar, a Bangla translation of the
bible, from
serampore mission. He later joined Fort William College and devoted himself
to writing textbooks. Fort William College had been established in Kolkata in
May 1800 to prepare English civil servants for their administrative duties. One
of their subjects was the local language. However, the absence of proper Bangla
texts posed considerable difficulties. A team of Bangla scholars led by Carey
accordingly began writing textbooks in Bangla. This is how a planned form of
Bangla language developed. Other scholars who helped the development of Bangla
prose were
ramram basu, Golaknath Sharma,
mrityunjay vidyalankar,
tarini charan mitra,
rajib lochon mukhopadhyay, Chandicharan Munshi and Haraprasad Roy.
Textbooks Although Fort William College helped develop Bangla prose
through the preparation of Bangla textbooks, later textbooks were written at the
initiative of
calcutta school-book society (established 1817). Some of its main writers
were
ram comul sen (1783-1844),
radhakanta deb (1783-1867), and Tarinicharan Mitra (1772-1837). Most of
their books were didactic. Other textbooks were written by teachers of
serampore college, including Felix Carey (1786-1822), John Clark Marshman,
and John Mack. Some Bangla writers of the time such as
krishna mohan banerji (1813-1885) also wrote textbooks.
While these textbooks were concerned with subject matter rather than with the
literary quality of writing, they form a valuable addition to Bangla prose
writing. By constructing a language that could communicate modern ideas to
Bengali readers, they helped develop Bangla prose, often by acquiring words and
terms from other languages.
Raja Rammohan Roy (1772/4-1833) also contributed to the further development of
Bangla prose. Some of his well-known books are translations: Vedanta
Grantha (1815), Vedantasar (1815), Kenopanisad (1816) and
Ishopanisad (1816). His original books include Bhattacharyer Sahit
Vichar (1817), Gosvamir Sahit Vichar (1817),
Sahamaran Virodhi Pustika, Sahamaran Visay
(1828),
gaudiya vyakaran (1833) etc. The main themes of these books are
religious and didactic.
Many of Rammohan's attempts at reform were opposed by people such as Mrityunjay
Vidyalankar, Radhakanta Deb, Ramkamal Sen, Kashinath Tarkapanchanan,
bhabanicharan bandyopadhyay (1787-1848), and primarily the Christian
missionaries of Serampore. Rammohan's supporters included Ramchandra Vidyavagish,
Prince
dwarkanath tagore (1794-1846), Prasannakumar Thakur, Tarachand Chakravarti
(1806-1857), Chandrashekhar Dev, Gourikanta Bhattacharya, Gouramohan Vidyalankar,
and Rev. Krishna Mohan Banerji. The propaganda war between Rammohan's supporters
and opponents generated writings, later nicknamed 'Dvairath Dvandva' or combat
between two charioteers, which fed the periodical journals and the newspapers,
at the time the most important medium of Bangla prose.
The development of Bangla periodicals and newspapers The appearance of
Bangla periodicals and newspapers in the second decade of the 19th century
helped create and develop Bangla prose. The missionaries of Serampore published
the first Bangla journal, Masik Digdarshan (April 1818). Other well-known
regular and irregular periodicals published between 1818 and 1831 include
Samachardarpan (1818), edited by John Clark
marshman; Sambad Kaumudi (1821), edited by Tarachand Dutta and
Bhabanicharan Bandyopadhyay; Samachar Chandrika (1822), by Bhabanicharan
Bandyopadhyay; and Bangadut (1829) by Neelmoni Halder. An important role
was also played by the mouthpiece of the
brahma samaj,
tattvabodhini patrika, which appeared in 1843 and which was edited by
akshay kumar datta for 12 years. Other who contributed to it were
iswar chandra vidyasagar (1820-1891),
debendranath tagore (1817-1905),
rajnarayan basu (1826-1899),
dwijendranath tagore (1840-1926). The journal significantly furthered the
literary efforts of Bengalis.
The rise of the Bangla novel
peary chand mitra (1814-1883) and
kali prasanna singh (1840-1870) were the first Bangla novelists. Peary Chand
Mitra was a fine essayist, writing on a variety of varied subjects. However, he
also wrote the first Bangla novel,
alaler gharer dulal (1858). Using the pen name of 'Tekchand Thakur', he
used
chalita bhasa or colloquial language to narrate his story of Bengal society.
His language, the common people's language with its mixture of Arabic, Persian
and Hindustani vocabulary, was fondly called 'alali prose'.
Kali Prasanna Singh brought Bangla even closer to people by using the colloquial
language of Kolkata and its surrounding areas in his writings. The language used
by him in his novel
hutom pyanchar naksha (1862), depicting the social life of Kolkata, was
more refined than that used by Peary Chand. His language, called 'hutomi',
considerably influenced Bangla prose during the next century.
The development of sadhu bhasa The principal architect of 19th century
Bangla prose was Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar. Writing textbooks and articles,
Vidyasagar developed a form of
sadhu bhasa or formal prose that influenced future writers.
Among other writers who contributed to the development of prose was
bhudev mukhopadhyay (1827-94), who wrote on society, education, history,
science, and religion. One of the prominent scholars of the time,
rajendralal mitra (1822-1891), used to write mostly in English but also
contributed in Bangla to the monthly journals Vividhartha Sanggraha
(1851), Rahasyasandarva (1851) and Vividhartha Sanggraha Sandarva
(1863). In 1852
rangalal banerjee (1827-1887) published the first Bangla book of literary
criticism. Rajnarayan Basu wrote on a variety of subjects in Sekal Ar Ekal
(1874), Hindu College Athaba Presidency College-er Brttanta (1876),
Bangala Bhasa O Sahitya Bisayak Baktrta (1878) and Atmacharita.
Ramgati Nyayaratna (1831-1894) wrote the first detailed history of Bangla
literature (1872, 1873) in Bangala Bhasa O Bangala Sahitya Bisayak Prastab.
Modern Period: The era of development (1860-1900)
(1860-1900) The first modern Bangla novelist was
bankimchandra chattopadhyay whose fourteen novels include Durgeshnandini,
Kapalkundala, Krishnakanter Will, Bisbrksa and Ananadamath.
Drawing upon history as well as contemporary life, Bankimchandra wrote novels
with well-developed plots and characters that continue to be eminently readable.
He also edited a literary monthy,
bangadarshan (1872).
Other significant writers of the time include Bankimchandra's elder brother
sanjeeb chunder chattopadhyay (1834-1889) who also was well known for his
novels as well as Palamau, an excellent travel story. Another
writer of merit was
romesh chundr dutt (1848-1909), who wrote historical novels. Rabindranath's
elder sister
swarna kumari devi (1855-1932) wrote novels as well as poems and plays. Her
social novels reflect the moral conflicts of contemporary society. She also
edited
bharati. Trailokyanath Mukhopadhyay (1847-1919) wrote a wide range of
entertaining stories for both young and old. He wrote four novels and four books
of
short stories. Indranath Bandyopadhyay (1849-1922) wrote satirical sketches
and novels. Some other established prose writers of the time were Pratapchandra
Ghosh (1845-1921), Shibnath Shastri, Chandrashekhor Mukhopadhyay (1849-1911),
Haraprasad Shastri (1853-1931), Damodar Mukhopadhyay, Shrishchandra Majumdar and
Nagendranath Gupta (1861-1940).
Essay writing This genre was initiated by Bhudev Mukhopadhyay and reached
its zenith at the hands of Bankimchandra. It was enriched by Bhudev
Mukhopadhyay's thoughtful essays on a variety of subjects. Some of his works in
this genre include Bijnan Rahasya (1875), Vividha Samalochana
(1876) and Krishnacharitra (1886). Other essayists include Bankim's elder
brother Sanjeeb Chunder who wrote Jatra-Samalochana (1875) and
Balyabibaha (1882) and Dwijendranath Tagore who wrote on linguistics. Other
essayists include Troilokyanath Sanyal (1840-1916), Bandhab (1874),
kaliprosanna ghosh (1843-1910), Chandranath Basu (1844-1910), Ramdas Sen
(1845-1887) Shibnath Shastri, Purnachandra Basu, Chandrashekhor Mukhopadhyay
(1849-1922) and Haraprasad Shastri.
Bengali Muslim writers For a considerable period, Bengali Muslim poets
had made no significant contribution to literature. They accepted neither
Company rule nor the modern ways of the British. While the 'Young Bengalis' were
emulating western ways, the Muslims were agitating against the British.
Following a change in their political attitude, middle-class Bengali Muslim
writers emerged in the 19th century. Prominent among them were
mir mosharraf hossain (1847-1912), Moulvi Mohammad Naimuddin (1832-1907),
Dad Ali (1852-1936),
kaikobad (1857-1951), Sheikh Abdur Rahim, Reazuddin Ahmad Mashadi, Mozammel
Huq, Munshi Muhammad Reazuddin Ahmad (1862-1933), Moulvi
mearajuddin ahmad (1852-1929), Munshi Muhammad Zamiruddin (1870-1930),
abdul hamid khan yusufzai (1864-1924) and Maulana Mohammad Moniruzzaman
Islamabadi (1875-1950). Mir Mosharraf Hossain wrote nearly 30 books including
novels, plays,
satire, poetry, musical plays, and essays. His best known writing is,
however,
bisad-sindhu, based on the incidents at Karbala.
Mozammel Huq wrote both prose and poetry. His poetry was inspired by the idea of
a Muslim renaissance. However, he excelled in writing prose, including
biographies and novels. He also translated Persian works into Bangla, including
the first part of Shahnama. The first Bangla biography of Prophet
muhammad (Sm) was written by Sheikh Abdur Rahim. Pandit Reazuddin Ahmad
Mashadi wrote Samaj Sangskarak, which was, however, banned by the
government soon after publication for its revolutionary content.
The era of Michael Madhusudan Dutt
michael madhusudan dutt (1824-1873) began writing in English but soon moved
to writing in Bangla. Influenced by his English readings, he used blank verse
and the sonnet form to write his poems. His epic,
meghnadbadh kavya (1861), combines an eastern subject with western
techniques and style. Sometime after writing Meghnadbadh,
Madhusudan left for Europe where he started writing sonnets. These were
published in 1866 as' Chaturddashpadi Kavitavali'. He is also credited with
having written the first true tragedy in Bangla.
Madhusudan was followed by
hemchandra banerjee (1838-1903) and
nabinchandra sen (1847-1909), who were inspired by nationalism and
hinduism. Hemchandra's epic Brttrasanghar (1875), based on the
Mahabharata, and Nabinchandra's book of poems Palashir Yuddha
(1875), reflect their nationalistic feelings. Kaikobad was a Muslim poet who
wrote
mahashmashan in the tradition of Hemchandra and Nabinchandra. The misery
of the Muslims of the time made him sad, prompting him to write poems on their
past glory. The 870-page Mahasmasan was written on the events of the
third Panipat war.
Lyrical poems The new trend of lyric poetry was manifested in
kavigan and Jatra.
tappa (a light classical variety of amorous songs), especially the songs of
nidhu gupta also known as Nidhubabu became popular during this period. These
songs were composed and presented purely for entertainment and therefore were
not intended to be of high literary value. These were however somewhat refined
later by coposers such as
gonjla gaen. Kavigan also became popular among the urban people. Some famous
poets of this period include
bhola moira,
anthony firingee, and Thakur Singh.
Modern lyrical poems The setter of this trend,
biharilal chakravarty (1835-1894), became famous for his poetic work
Saradamangal (1879). Biharilal's language was simple and spontaneous. Among
other poets of the time,
surendranath majumder (1838-1878) became famous for his poem Mahila.
Other poets included Dineshcharan Basu, Debendranath Sen, Akshay Kumar Baral
(1860-1919), Rajanikanta Sen (1865-1910), Govindadas (1854-1918), Girindamohini
Das (1857-1924), Kamini Roy (1864-1933), Mankumari Basu, Anandachandra Mitra,
Govindachandra Roy, Barodacharan Mitra and
dwijendralal roy.
Modern dramatic literature Madhusudan Dutt established modernism in
Bangla plays as he did in Bangla poetry. He began writing Bangla plays after
noticing the paucity of good plays in Bangla. Madhusudan's first play,
Sharmistha (1859), was based on the Mahabharata story of
Sharmistha-Devayani-Yayati. His second play, Padmavati (1860), was based
on a Greek classical story. In this play he also used blank verse for the first
time.
Madhusudan also wrote two farces, Ekei Ki Bale Sabhyata and Buda
Saliker Ghare Roun (1860), in which he used colloquial language and dialect
as well as English and Persian words. But Madhusudan's best play was
Krishnakumari (1861), which has been described as the first successful
tragedy in Bangla. In writing Krishnakumari, Madhusudan ignored eastern
dramatic rules and used western ones.
Madhusudan was followed by
dinabandhu mitra whose Nildarpan (1860) has considerable historical
value as it depicts the merciless exploitation of Bengali farmers by English
indigo traders. The play played a significant role in ending indigo
cultivation. Two other playwrights who made sigificant contributions were
Dwijendra Lal Roy and
girish chandra ghosh (1844-1912).
The first Muslim playwright was Golam Husain whose play Hadjvalani was
printed in 1864. It was not a complete play, but rather a string of scenes.
Azimuddi's farce, Kadir Mathay Budor Biye (2nd edition 1868), was written
at about the same time. Mir Mosharraf Hossain wrote several plays in Bangla,
among them Basantakumari (1873), written on the style of Sanskrit plays,
and Zamidar-Darpan (1873), depicting the oppression of farmers by the
landlords.
Late Muslim writers In the 1860s the English rulers severely suppressed
the
faraizi,
wahabi and other religious and political movements. Towards the end of the
century, Munshi
mohammad meherullah and his disciple, Munshi Muhammad Zamiruddin, launched a
movement to make Bengali Muslims aware of their Muslim identity through literary
efforts. This movement, known as the 'Sudhakar' movement, was led by Moulvi
Mearajuddin Ahmad, Pandit Reazuddin Ahmad Mashadi, Munshi Sheikh Abdur Rahim and
Munshi Muhammad Reazuddin Ahmad. They attempted to make Muslims conscious of
their Islamic heritage and glorious past by creating literature in their mother
tongue Bangla. They also translated some books into Bangla. This led to the
creation of a new stream in Bangla literature. Their first publication was
Islam Tattva. Thereafter, Sheikh Abdur Rahim and Munshi Muhammad Reazuddin
Ahmed published a weekly journal
sudhakar (1889). Though Muslim Bengalis had made an effort to create
literature before this movement, there had previously been no concerted effort
of this kind. In fact, it was the Sudhakar group that laid the foundation
for a distinct stream of Muslim nationalistic literature in Bangla.
The dormant talent of Munshi Mohammad Meherullah (1861-1907) flowered in the
wake of severe clashes with
christianity. Of his nine books, Meherul Islam had a puthi-style
nat, eulogising Prophet Muhammad (S). Its language was simple and
easy but at the same time lucid and elegant. Munshi Muhammad Zamiruddin
(1870-1930) converted to christianity and came to be known as Father John
Zamiruddin. But when he was defeated in a religious debate, he reconverted to
islam and as Munshi Zamiruddin engaged in propagating Islam. Basically he
used his pen in the service of Islam and became quite famous. Sheikh Abdur Rahim
(1859-1931) wrote about the Muslim heritage of Bengali Muslims and described the
contribution of Islam to human civilisation. His first book was about the life
and contribution of the Prophet Muhammad (S): Hazrat Muhammader Jibancharita
O Dharmaniti (1887). He was associated with editing Sudhakar, Mihir,
Hafez, Moslem Pratibha, Moslem Hitaisi etc. He wrote thoughtful articles in
the
mohammadi. Maulana Moniruzzaman Islamabadi was a political activist,
social worker, journalist, litterateur and a good orator. He was more famous for
his historical essays. His best literary work was Bharate Mussalman Sabhyata.
He earned literary fame through his writings in Mihir and Sudhakar.
He later edited and published
soltan and Amir.
Some other Muslim writers of repute were Deen Muhammad Gangopadhyay (1853-1916),
Sheikh Abdul Jabbar (1881-1918), Munshi Abdul Latif (1870-1936) and
kazi akram hossain (1896-1963). Abdul Latif was a nationalist Congress
leader before the partition of India, but nevertheless he became famous for his
literary works in the service of Islam and the Muslims. Kazi Akram Hossain
became famous for his book Islamer Itihas (1924) but he also made
significant contributions in other fields of literature.
mohammad yakub ali chowdhury (1888-1940) was a rare scholar in the Muslim
society of the time. His Manab Mukut testified to his depth of knowledge
as a philosopher.
Modern period: The Tagore phase (1890-1930) Rabindranath Tagore
was an extraordinary man who made major contributions to all genres of Bangla
literature. He wrote an immense range of rich and varied forms of poetry, plays,
dance dramas, novels, short stories, essays and over two thousand songs.
Although he was known as 'Vishvakavi' (world poet) and won the Nobel Prize for
literature in 1913 for his book of poems Gitanjali, he was also a
writer of superb prose, fictional and non-fictional. The volume and variety of
his writings, his high ideals, his social commitment, rendered Rabindranath an
institution by himself. He dominated Bangla literature for an entire
generation and continued to do so long after his death.
The most popular novelist of this period was
sharat chandra chattopadhyay (1876-1938). His novels depict, with a great
deal of lucidity and sympathy, the daily life of the Bengalis, and, above all,
the life of the Bengali woman. His novels continue to be popular and have been
translated into almost all Indian languages. Many have been turned into cinemas
and stage plays.
Other writers of the period include
pramatha chowdhury (1868-1946), whose essays and linguistic style greatly
influenced a group of writers. He established the position of colloquial
language in literature and also introduced the format of French short stories in
Bangla literature.
probhat kumar mukhopadhyay (1873-1932) wrote a number of novels but was at
his best at the short story, of which he wrote over a hundred, most of which end
with a sudden twist.
abanindranath tagore (1871-1951) was a writer of fine colloquial Bangla
prose as evidenced in his autobiographical writings and in his description of
aesthetics.
Some other well-known writers of this phase were Jagadishchandra Bose
(1858-1937), Ramendrasundar Trivedi, Naresh Chandra Sengupta, Upendranath
Gangopadhyay, Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay, Monilal Gangopadhyay, Kedarnath
Bandyopadhyay, Khagendranath Mitra, Jagadishchandra Gupta,
jaladhar sen, Sourindramohan Mukhopadhyay,
nirupama devi,
prabhavati devi, Sita Devi, Shanta Devi and Hemendrakumar Roy.
Bangla poetry in Rabindra era Most of Rabindranath's contemporary poets
were overshadowed by him and remained under his influence for over half a
century. A number of poets were, however, able to shake off his influence and
establish themselves in their own rights. Among these poets were Satyendranath
Dutta (1882-1922), Mohitlal Majumder (1888-1952), Kazi Nazrul Islam and
Jasimuddin (1902-1976). Satyendranath demonstrated extraordinary ability in
creating new poetic metres, and was accordingly called the 'magician of metres'.
He was also a sensitive translator.
Mohitlal Majumder paved the way for modernism. Frankly sexual, his love poems
celebrate physical love. In idiom and structure, however, his style was
classical. Nazrul Islam entered Rabindranath's calm and tranquil sphere like a
meteor, celebrating rebellion and common humanity in poetry that could be
declamatory, fiery, angry, and lyrical at will. The poem 'Bidrohi', that marked
his extrance into poetry, ensured his place in Bangla literature. But he was
also a composer and song writer, writing
ghazals and love songs, as well as hamd and nat as well as
kirtan. Jasimuddin, called 'Palli Kavi' (rural poet), drew from the
tradition of rural Bengal, writing about the joys and sorrows of rustic life in
rhythms that were based on folk tunes.
Some other well-known poets of this era were Karunanidhan Bandyopadhyay, Chitta
Ranjan Das, Atulprasad Sen, Kalidas Roy, Kumudranjan Mallik, Narendra Dev,
Pramathanath Roy Chowdhury, Bijay Chandra Majumder, Mankumari Basu,
Jatindramohan Bagchi, Jatindranath Sengupta, Sabitriprasanna Chattopadhyay,
Radharani Devi and Umadevi.
Essay literature Like the other writers of this era, the essayists too
were greatly influenced by Rabindranath. The first of the prominent essayists of
this phase was Pramatha Chowdhury. Through his journal
sabujpatra, he popularised colloquial Bangla prose, proving through his
essays that colloquial language was fit to express both light and serious
thoughts. His use of colloquial Bangla also convivced Rabindranath to do the
same, resulting in Rabindranath's moving in his later writings from sadhu bhasa
to chalita bhasa. Pramatha Chowdhury was also well known as a literary critic.
Ramendrasundar Trivedi was also a fine essayist and was primarily known for his
essays on scientific subjects. However, he also wrote essays on philology and
grammar, society and politics and philosophy. His philosophical essays reveal a
depth of thought and originality despite the simplicity of their language.
Balendranath Tagore (1870-1899) was an able literary critic. Abanindranath
Tagore was a fine art critic as well as folklorist, writing in Bageshwari
Shilpa Prabandhabali and Banglar Vrata about folk art and rituals.
Some other well-known essayists of the era were Mohitlal Majumder, Dinesh
Chandra Sen, Sureshchandra Samajpati, Panchkari Bandyopadhyay and
shashanka mohan sen.
Post-Rabindra phase (1930-1947) (1930-1947)
The anti-imperialist movement that began in Bengal following the First World War
and the socialist revolution in Russia also affected Bangla literature. Though
Rabindranath was still writing, around 1930 new writers emerged along with new
interests. In 1923 Kallol, a literary journal, began publication
in Kolkata where these new writers were published. Shanibarer Chithi also
provided them indirect support. Two similar journals appeared around this time:
Kalikalam in Kolkata in 1926 and Pragati in
dhaka in 1927. The Kallol writers included Buddhadev Bose and Achintya Kumar
Sengupta.
Fiction and short stories of the thirties The appearance of some able
litterateurs at this time helped the development of Bangla fiction and short
stories. These writers depicted the lives of working people, the problems of
human existence, the politics of India, etc.
rajshekhar basu (1880-1960) was the main architect of satirical short
stories in Bangla.
Other famous writers included Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay, Tarashankar
Bandyopadhyay (1898-1971), and Manik Bandyopadhyay (1908-1956). Bibhutibhushan
Bandyopadhyay's work is distinguished by descriptions of the domestic life of
rural Bangladesh and its scenic beauty. He analyses human behaviour even as he
describes nature's tranquil and charming scenes. His best work was
pather panchali (1929). Tarashankar Bandyopadhyay was a powerful writer,
writing about the lives of simple peasants, boatmen and minstrels of rural
Bengal. Expansive and comprehensive, his novels Ganadevata (1942) and
Panchagram (1944) bring rural life alive. His short stories also focus on
the village.
The novelist and short story writer,
manik bandyopadhyay, was profoundly influenced by Marxism and by Freudian
psychoanalsyis. Putul Nacher Itikatha (1936) and Padmanadir Majhi
(1936) reveal his Marxist leanings as they do his psycholgical approach.
Premendra Mitra (1904-1988) was an adroit short story writer, using language
skilfully to convey his themes and create characters. His stories encompass a
variety of subjects ranging from struggle for living to politics and sociology.
Some other powerful novelists and short story writers of the time were Jagadish
Gupta,
bibhutibhushan bandyopadhyay,
balaichand mukhopadhyay (1899-1979),
pramathanath bishi (1901-1985), Manoj Basu (1901-1987), Gopal Haldar (1902-
),
achinta kumar sengupta (1903-1976), Annadashankar Roy (1904- ), Prabodhkumar
Sanyal (1905-1983), Buddhadev Bose, Subodh Ghosh (1909-1980), Gajendrakumar
Mitra (1909- ), Bimal Mitra (1912- ), Narayan Gangopadhyay (1918-1970), Moti
Nandi (1931- ), Shyamal Gangopadhyay (1933-2001), Sunil Gangopadhyay (1934- )
and Shirsendu Mukhopadhyay (1935- ).
Poetry of the thirties The social decay that engulfed Europe after the
First World War also pervaded the minds of Bengali poets via English literature.
Discarding Rabindranath's aesthetic and idealistic perceptions of beauty, love
and pleasure in poetry, they espoused urban life. The pioneering role in
introducing ultra-modernism in Bangla poetry was played by Achinta Kumar
Sengupta, Buddhadev Bose, Premendra Mitra,
jibanananda das (1899-1954),
sudhindranath dutta (1901-1960),
bishnu de (1909-1982) and Samar Sen (1916- ). Jibanananda Das was the most
powerful poet of this phase. In poetic expressions he allowed himself to be
driven by both the intellect and the emotions. He was essentially a poet of
nature and drew superb images from the natural world around him.
The complexity of modern poetry is reflected in the works of Sudhindranath Dutta
who used complex language and difficult phrases for the purpose. Among Marxist
poets were Bishnu De and Samar Sen. Bishnu De's poems were distinctive in
syntax, in the use of myths and new
prosody. Samar Sen made the urban environment the basic theme of his poems;
but, alongside his Marxist views, his poems also contained romantic thoughts and
the charm of the quiet atmosphere of the Santal Pargana.
Buddhadev Bose ranked among the first group of poets who attempted to move away
from the influence of Rabindranath. Bose was fully aware of the features of
modern poetry and his love poems are about the physical desires of the body
rather than about romantic love. Nevertheless, his late poems show that deep in
his heart he was essentially a romantic poet.
The poems of Premendra Mitra are inspired by rebelliousness and reflect his
sympathy for oppressed and deprived humanity. While there is a strain of egoism
in his peoms, there is an underlying humanism that makes his poems appealing.
Other poets of this era include Amiya Chakravarty (1901-1986),
sukanta bhattacharya (1926-1947), Ajit Dutta, Arun Mitra, and Subhash
Mukhopadhyay.
Dramatic literature of the thirties The dramatic literature of the time,
unlike poetry, fiction and short stories, did not show much of modernism. The
trend of Girish Chandra and Dwijendra Lal was still in vogue. Nevertheless,
there were some changes because of stage modernisation, changing tastes,
appearance of educated amateur artistes, and writing of new kinds of plays.
Notable playwrights of this phase were Jogeshchandra Choudhury (1886-1941),
sachindra nath sengupta (1892-1961),
tulsi lahiri (1897-1959),
manmatha roy (1899-1988) and Pramathanath Bishi.
Essay literature of the thirties In this phase, those who were noted for
writing thematic essays included
suniti kumar chatterji (1890-1977),
sushil kumar de (1890-1968), Rajshekhar Basu, Niharranjan Roy (1903-1981)
and Sukumar Sen; in literary criticism, prominent writers were Srikumar
Bandyopadhyay (1892-1970), Shashibhusan Dasgupta (1911-1964) and Pramathanath
Bishi; in other areas, the prominent writers were
atul chandra gupta (1884-1961), Annadashankar Roy and Dhurjatiprasad
Mukhopadhyay. Buddhadev Bose,
syed muztaba ali (1904-1974), Humayun Kabir (1906-1969) and
abu sayeed ayyub (1906-1982) were also exceptionally fine essayists.
Post-Partition era (1947-1971) The most important development in
the intellectual history of Muslim Bengal was the establishment in Dhaka of the
muslim sahitya samaj in the thirties. The group's principal source of
inspiration was
abul hussain (1896-1938) and its main writer was
kazi abdul wadud (1894-1970). The Samaj's mouthpiece was
shikha which proclaimed the idea of free thought.
Among those who paved the way for a new stream of literature in the then East
Pakistan and later in independent Bangladesh,
mohammad najibar rahman (1860-1923) deserves particular mention. His novel
Anwara (1912), which depicts the life of an ideal Muslim family, was read
very widely in Muslim homes.
ekramuddin ahmad (1872-1940) was another powerful Muslim writer of the
period. Although he was a critic, novelist and short story writer, he was
instrumental in introducing Rabindranath to Muslim society through his book
Rabindrapratibha (1926).roquiah
sakhawat hossain(1880-1932) demonstrated considerable skill in writing
fiction, short stories, essays and poems, many of them inspired by her ideals of
social and educational reform. Her Abarodhbasini (1928) depicted the
plight of women in a purdah society. In Abdullah (1932)
kazi imdadul huq (1882-1926) revealed the effects of western education on
traditonal Muslim society.
shahadat hossain (1893-1953) was a devoted and unassuming litterateur and
poet, mainly remembered for Rupchhanda (1943). The primary objective of
golam mostafa (1897-1964) was to introduce Islamic ideas in Bangla
literature. Apart from writing poetry, he also wrote Vishwanabi (1942), a
fine biography of the prophet of Islam.
Some other well-known writers of this phase include Mohammad Akram Khan, Dr
muhammad shahidullah (1885-1969), Dr Muhammad Lutfar Rahman (1889-1936), S
Wazed Ali (1890-1951), Ibrahim Khan (1894-1978), Nurunessa Khatun Vidyavinodini
(1894-1975), Sheikh Muhammad Idris Ali (1895-1945), Akbaruddin (1895-1979),
Mohammad Barkatullah (1898-1974), Abul Kalam Shamsuddin (1897-1978), Qazi
Motahar Hossain, Abul Mansur Ahmed (1898-1979), Benajir Ahmed (1903-1983),
abul fazal (1903-1983), Motaher Hossain Chowdhury (1903-1956), Muhammad
Mansuruddin (1904-1987), Abdul Quadir (1906-1984), Bande Ali Miah (1906-1979),
Mahmuda Khatun Siddiqua (1906-1977), Habibullah Bahar Choudhury (1906-1966),
Mahbub-ul Alam (1906-1982), Dr Muhammad Enamul Huq, Sufi Motahar Hosen
(1907-1975), Begum Sufia Kamal (1911-1999) and Raushan Yazdani (1917-1967).
India's independence movement and the movement for Pakistan influenced the
Bangla-speaking people in two different ways. Despite their allegiance to their
common heritage and customs, the poets and litterateurs of this phase, both old
and new, were inspired to work for the changed society and life of the new
states of India and Pakistan. The political partition of Bengal was thus
accompanied by the partition of its literature as well.
Bangladesh era The literature of Bangladesh may be divided into
three phases: first phase 1947-1957, second phase 1958-1970 and third phase from
1971 onward.
First phase (1947-1957) This phase extended from
pre-partition days to the pre-Ayub period. East Bengal faced a host of problems,
such as an influx of refugees, economic distress and communal disturbances, as
well as the Pakistani regime's hostile attitude to East Bengal and Bangla. Soon
after the creation of Pakistan, the people of the eastern region realised the
absurdity of a state based on religion. The decision to make
urdu the sole state language of the country caused Bengalis to protest,
culminating in the
language movement of 1952. This awareness of their linguistic rights laid
the foundation for the first phase of Bangla literature.
Fiction The fiction produced in Bangladesh was in fact a continuation of
the fiction produced by the Muslim writers of undivided Bengal. Prominent among
them were Muhammad Najibur Rahman, Korban Ali, Sheikh Idris Ali, Kazi Imdadul
Huq, Kazi Abdul Wadud, Akbaruddin (1895-1978), Abul Fazal and Humayun Kabir.
They founded the base for fiction in Bangladesh by assimilating the thought
process of the Bengali Muslim society during the first two decades of the 20th
century.
Most of the novels of the first phase were written in the backdrop of rural
Bangladesh, among them
lalsalu (1948) by
syed waliullah (1922-1971), Char-Bhanga Char (1951) by Kazi
Afsaruddin (1921-1975), Kashbaner Kanya (1954) and Alamnagarer
Upakatha (1954) by Shamsuddin Abul Kalam (1926-1997), Chandradviper
Upakhyan (1952) by Abdul Gaffar Choudhury (b 1934), Surya-Dighal Badi
(1955) by Abu Ishaque (b 1926), and
sarder jayenuddin's Adiganta. Some writers chose life of the middle
class and its crisis as their theme. Among this class of novels Abul Fazal's
Jiban Pather Yatri (1948) and Ranga Prabhat (1957) are worth
mentioning.
Short stories Many of the Muslim writers of pre-partition days
concentrated on producing novels and very few wrote short stories. But prominent
among those who were active in the genre after 1947 include Abul Fazal, Abu
Rushd, Syed Waliullah, Abul Mansur Ahmed, Shamsuddin Abul Kalam and
shawkat osman (1917-1998). The new genre of short stories grew around the
Muslim middle class that sprang up following partition; most stories used the
social life of this class as their theme. Thus the short stories of Bangladesh
reflected social reality and how the onslaught of urban life was eroding the
quietude of rural life. Some books of short stories of this phase were Shawkat
Osman's Pijranpol (1950), Junu Apa O Anyanya Galpa (1952) and
Sabek Kahini (1953), Shamsuddin Abul Kalam's Anek Diner Asha (1952),
Path Jana Nei (1953) and Dheu (1953),
shahed ali's Jibrailer Dana (1953), and Alauddin Al-Azad's Jege
Achhi, Dhan Kanya (1951) and Mrganabhi (1955).
Poetry The poets of East Bengal had been attempting since pre-partition
days to create poetry of their own separate from the Kolkata-centred stream.
After partition, the poets felt even more encouraged to write romantic poems on
the themes of early Islamic history as well as on Pakistani nationalism. Those
who belonged to this trend included
farrukh ahmad (1918-1974),
ahsan habib (1918-1983), Abul Husain (b 1921), Golam Quddus and Syed Ali
Ahsan (b 1922).
Farrukh Ahmad was the most prominent poet of this trend. He created a world of
poetry by using religious sentiments. His Sat Sagarer Majhi (1944) and
Sirajam Munira (1952) are two books of poems worth mentioning. Two other
equally important books on similar themes are Golam Mostafa's Bani Adam
(1958) and Talim Husain's Dishari (1956). Other well-known poets of the
time were Syed Ali Ahsan, Mufakkharul Islam, Sadruddin and Sufi Zulfiqar Haider.
However, there were other poets who tried to write poetry on secular and
humanistic themes. Among these poets were Ashraf Siddiqui, with Biskanya
(1955), Sat Bhai Champa (1955) and Uttar Akasher Tara (1958),
Mazharul Islam with Matir Fasal (1955), Matiul Islam with Saptakanya
(1957) and Begum Sufia Kamal with Man O Jiban (1957). This humanistic
trend is also reflected in Natun Kavita (1950), edited by Ashraf Siddiqui
and Abdur Rashid Khan. Among poets who contributed to this edition were Shamsur
Rahman,
hasan hafizur rahman, Alauddin Al-Azad and Borhanuddin Khan Jahangir.
Another poetic trend was inspired by the themes of instability in modern
society, fatigue, rebellion and pangs of deprivation. The poets of this stream
include Ahsan Habib and Abul Husain. Ahsan Habib's Ratrishes (1944)
contained poems typical of his timidity and modesty. Abul Husain's Naba
Basanta (1942), though published before partition, belongs to this trend.
The influence of 21 February The events of 21 February 1952 had a
far-reaching effect on poetry as they did on the national life of this country.
In 1953 Hasan Hafizur Rahman published an anthology of poems under the title of
Ekushey February. Along with Natun Kavita, this anthology played a
significant role in shaping the secular and humanistic character of Bangla
poetry.
Plays Unlike other branches of literature in this phase, plays did not
flourish to any significant extent. Religious and social taboos about plays as
well as various limitations in staging them thwarted the development of drama.
Most plays of the time were based on historical stories, completely detached
from the realities of contemporary life. Of these plays, Akbaruddin's Nadir
Shah (1953) is worth mentioning. Poet Jasimuddin used folklore to create
Padmapar, Madhumala and Beder Meye. Outside these two trends,
nurul momen created Nemesis (1948) depicting a superb picture of the
contemporary life. In terms of theme and structure, Nemesis was regarded
as the first successful play of Bangladesh. Razia Khan's play Sangbarta
reflects political consciousness. Askar Ibne Shaikh is particularly remembered
for writing social plays. He wrote quite a few plays based on the realities of
rural life including Padaksep, Bidrohi Padma, Duranta Dheu,
Birodh, Agnigiri, Anubartan and Pratiksa, all
written between 1951 and 1959. Of particular interest is the thematic variety of
these plays, which include historical plays as well as plays of political
protest, plays based on
folk tales and those containing poetry and satire.
It was
munier chowdhury (1925-1971) who almost single-handedly raised the
status of Bangla plays to an international level. A political prisoner in Dhaka
central jail, he wrote the exceptional play Kabar (1953) based on the
language movement of 1952. In fact, Kabar proved to be a turning point in
Bangla plays. When the play was published, Manus and Nastachhele
were added to the volume. Through these three plays, the writer spoke of
eschewing communalism and of embracing greater humanism.
Essays Most of the post-partition essays were on subjects of literature
and culture. Of the writers of this trend many were already well known before
partition, such as Muhammad Shahidullah and
muhammad abdul hai. Some books had been published in 1928 from Paris. These
writers continued to carry out valuable research on Bangla language, literature
and culture. Shahidullah's Bangla Sahityer Katha (volume 1, 1953, volume
2, 1965) and Abdul Hai's Sahitya O Sangskrti (1954) deserve special
mention in the essay literature of this phase.
Second phase (1958-1970) The literary and cultural
activities in Pakistan and especially in East Pakistan were thwarted following
the promulgation of martial law by the army chief Ayub Khan in 1958.
Restrictions on open politics, establishment of dictatorship in the garb of
democracy and similar other measures aroused the Bengalis against the regime.
The people's uprising in 1968, the students' movement in 1969 to realise their
11-point demand, the victory of the Bengalis in the general elections of 1970
but the refusal of the Pakistani junta to transfer power to them, the liberation
war of 1971, the victory won by the Bengalis and the establishment of the
sovereign state of Bangladesh all there deeply affected the social life of the
people and were amply reflected in the Bangla literature of the 1958-1970
period.
Fiction Fiction in the second phase, as in the first phase, was written
mainly on rural life. The harsh realities of rural life in Bangladesh were the
theme of Hazar Bachhar Dhare (1964) by
zahir raihan (1933-1972). The complexities of Hindu-Muslim relations in
rural life were used by
satyen sen (1907-1981) as the theme of his Padachihna (1968).
shahidullah kaiser (1925-1971) in his Sareng Bau (1962) depicts a
realistic picture of how the onslaught and complexity of urban life were
destroying the peace of the rural life of south Bengal. Alauddin Al-Azad's
Karnafuli portrayed the life of class struggle on the banks of the river
karnafuli.
ahmed sofa's Surya Tumi Sathi (1968) showed the continuing struggle
for existence of rural people. However, Syed Waliullah's Chander Amabasya
(1964), though ostensibly about rural life, is actually about social life under
the Ayub Khan regime.
The shadow cast by Ayub's military rule on the life and thoughts of the Bengalis
led creative writers to take to myths and symbolism to put forward their
message. The crises that the Bengali middle class passed through during the Ayub
rule were symbolically presented by Shawkat Osman in his novels Krtadaser
Hasi (1963), Raja Upakhyan (1970) and Samagam. Similarly,
Satyen Sen in his Abhishapta Nagari (1967) and Paper Sant